Chemistry : the molecular nature of matter and change : advanced topics

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Cover Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Brief Contents Detailed Contents About The Authors Preface Acknowledgments Chapter 1 Keys to Studying Chemistry: Definitions, Units, and Problem Solving 1.1 Some Fundamental Definitions The States of Matter The Properties of Matter and Its Changes The Central Theme in Chemistry The Importance of Energy in the Study of Matter 1.2 Chemical Arts and the Origins of Modern Chemistry Prechemical Traditions The Phlogiston Fiasco and the Impact of Lavoisier 1.3 The Scientific Approach: Developing a Model 1.4 Measurement and Chemical Problem Solving General Features of SI Units Some Important SI Units in Chemistry Units and Conversion Factors in Calculations A Systematic Approach to Solving Chemistry Problems Temperature Scales Extensive and Intensive Properties 1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement: Significant Figures Determining Which Digits Are Significant Significant Figures: Calculations and Rounding Off Precision, Accuracy, and Instrument Calibration CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 2 The Components of Matter 2.1 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic Overview 2.2 The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter Mass Conservation Definite Composition Multiple Proportions 2.3 Dalton's Atomic Theory Postulates of the Atomic Theory How the Theory Explains the Mass Laws 2.4 The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model Discovery of the Electron and Its Properties Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus 2.5 The Atomic Theory Today Structure of the Atom Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbol Isotopes Atomic Masses of the Elements TOOLS OF THE LABORATORY: MASS SPECTROMETRY 2.6 Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table 2.7 Compounds: Introduction to Bonding The Formation of Ionic Compounds The Formation of Covalent Substances 2.8 Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses Binary Ionic Compounds Compounds That Contain Polyatomic Ions Acid Names from Anion Names Binary Covalent Compounds The Simplest Organic Compounds: Straight-Chain Alkanes Molecular Masses from Chemical Formulas Representing Molecules with Formulas and Models 2.9 Mixtures: Classification and Separation An Overview of the Components of Matter TOOLS OF THE LABORATORY: BASIC SEPARATION TECHNIQUES CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 3 Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations 3.1 The Mole Defining the Mole Determining Molar Mass Converting Between Amount, Mass, and Number of Chemical Entities The Importance of Mass Percent 3.2 Determining the Formula of an Unknown Compound Empirical Formulas Molecular Formulas Chemical Formulas and Molecular Structures; Isomers 3.3 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 3.4 Calculating Quantities of Reactant and Product Stoichiometrically Equivalent Molar Ratios from the Balanced Equation Reactions That Occur in a Sequence Reactions That Involve a Limiting Reactant Theoretical, Actual, and Percent Reaction Yields CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 4 Three Major Classes of Chemical Reactions 4.1 Solution Concentration and the Role of Water as a Solvent The Polar Nature of Water Ionic Compounds in Water Covalent Compounds in Water Expressing Concentration in Terms of Molarity Amount-Mass-Number Conversions Involving Solutions Preparing and Diluting Molar Solutions 4.2 Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic Reactions 4.3 Precipitation Reactions The Key Event: Formation of a Solid from Dissolved Ions Predicting Whether a Precipitate Will Form Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions 4.4 Acid-Base Reactions The Key Event: Formation of H2O from H+ and OH− Proton Transfer in Acid-Base Reactions Stoichiometry of Acid-Base Reactions: Acid-Base Titrations 4.5 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions The Key Event: Movement of Electrons Between Reactants Some Essential Redox Terminology Using Oxidation Numbers to Monitor Electron Charge Stoichiometry of Redox Reactions: Redox Titrations 4.6 Elements in Redox Reactions Combination Redox Reactions Decomposition Redox Reactions Displacement Redox Reactions and Activity Series Combustion Reactions 4.7 The Reversibility of Reactions and the Equilibrium State CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 5 Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory 5.1 An Overview of the Physical States of Matter 5.2 Gas Pressure and Its Measurement Measuring Gas Pressure: Barometers and Manometers Units of Pressure 5.3 The Gas Laws and Their Experimental Foundations The Relationship Between Volume and Pressure: Boyle's Law The Relationship Between Volume and Temperature: Charles's Law The Relationship Between Volume and Amount: Avogadro's Law Gas Behavior at Standard Conditions The Ideal Gas Law Solving Gas Law Problems 5.4 Rearrangements of the Ideal Gas Law The Density of a Gas The Molar Mass of a Gas The Partial Pressure of Each Gas in a Mixture of Gases The Ideal Gas Law and Reaction Stoichiometry 5.5 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory: A Model for Gas Behavior How the Kinetic-Molecular Theory Explains the Gas Laws Effusion and Diffusion The Chaotic World of Gases: Mean Free Path and Collision Frequency CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE: HOW THE GAS LAWS APPLY TO EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE 5.6 Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior Effects of Extreme Conditions on Gas Behavior The van der Waals Equation: Adjusting the Ideal Gas Law CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 6 Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change 6.1 Forms of Energy and Their Interconversion Defining the System and Its Surroundings Energy Change (ΔE): Energy Transfer to or from a System Heat and Work: Two Forms of Energy Transfer The Law of Energy Conservation Units of Energy State Functions and the Path Independence of the Energy Change Calculating Pressure-Volume Work (PV Work) 6.2 Enthalpy: Changes at Constant Pressure The Meaning of Enthalpy Comparing ΔE and ΔH Exothermic and Endothermic Processes 6.3 Calorimetry: Measuring the Heat of a Chemical or Physical Change Specific Heat Capacity The Two Major Types of Calorimetry 6.4 Stoichiometry of Thermochemical Equations 6.5 Hess's Law: Finding ΔH of Any Reaction 6.6 Standard Enthalpies of Reaction (ΔH°rxn) Formation Equations and Their Standard Enthalpy Changes Determining ΔH°rxn from ΔH°f Values for Reactants and Products CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: THE FUTURE OF ENERGY USE CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 7 Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure 7.1 The Nature of Light The Wave Nature of Light The Particle Nature of Light 7.2 Atomic Spectra Line Spectra and the Rydberg Equation The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom The Energy Levels of the Hydrogen Atom TOOLS OF THE LABORATORY: SPECTROMETRY IN CHEMICAL ANALYSIS 7.3 The Wave-Particle Duality of Matter and Energy The Wave Nature of Electrons and the Particle Nature of Photons Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle 7.4 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom The Schrödinger Equation, the Atomic Orbital, and the Probable Location of the Electron Quantum Numbers of an Atomic Orbital Quantum Numbers and Energy Levels Shapes of Atomic Orbitals The Special Case of Energy Levels in the Hydrogen Atom CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 8 Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity 8.1 Characteristics of Many-Electron Atoms The Electron-Spin Quantum Number The Exclusion Principle Electrostatic Effects and Energy-Level Splitting 8.2 The Quantum-Mechanical Model and the Periodic Table Building Up Period 1 Building Up Period 2 Building Up Period 3 Building Up Period 4: The First Transition Series General Principles of Electron Configurations Intervening Series: Transition and Inner Transition Elements Similar Electron Configurations Within Groups 8.3 Trends in Three Atomic Properties Trends in Atomic Size Trends in Ionization Energy Trends in Electron Affinity 8.4 Atomic Properties and Chemical Reactivity Trends in Metallic Behavior Properties of Monatomic Ions CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 9 Models of Chemical Bonding 9.1 Atomic Properties and Chemical Bonds The Three Ways Elements Combine Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule 9.2 The Ionic Bonding Model Why Ionic Compounds Form: The Importance of Lattice Energy Periodic Trends in Lattice Energy How the Model Explains the Properties of Ionic Compounds 9.3 The Covalent Bonding Model The Formation of a Covalent Bond Bonding Pairs and Lone Pairs Properties of a Covalent Bond: Order, Energy, and Length How the Model Explains the Properties of Covalent Substances TOOLS OF THE LABORATORY: INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY 9.4 Bond Energy and Chemical Change Changes in Bond Energy: Where Does ΔH°rxn Come From? Using Bond Energies to Calculate ΔH°rxn Bond Strengths and the Heat Released from Fuels and Foods 9.5 Between the Extremes: Electronegativity and Bond Polarity Electronegativity Bond Polarity and Partial Ionic Character The Gradation in Bonding Across a Period 9.6 An Introduction to Metallic Bonding The Electron-Sea Model How the Model Explains the Properties of Metals CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 10 The Shapes of Molecules 10.1 Depicting Molecules and Ions with Lewis Structures Applying the Octet Rule to Write Lewis Structures Resonance: Delocalized Electron-Pair Bonding Formal Charge: Selecting the More Important Resonance Structure Lewis Structures for Exceptions to the Octet Rule 10.2 Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory Electron-Group Arrangements and Molecular Shapes The Molecular Shape with Two Electron Groups (Linear Arrangement) Molecular Shapes with Three Electron Groups (Trigonal Planar Arrangement) Molecular Shapes with Four Electron Groups (Tetrahedral Arrangement) Molecular Shapes with Five Electron Groups (Trigonal Bipyramidal Arrangement) Molecular Shapes with Six Electron Groups (Octahedral Arrangement) Using VSEPR Theory to Determine Molecular Shape Molecular Shapes with More Than One Central Atom 10.3 Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity Bond Polarity, Bond Angle, and Dipole Moment The Effect of Molecular Polarity on Behavior CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY: MOLECULAR SHAPE, BIOLOGICAL RECEPTORS, AND THE SENSE OF SMELL CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 11 Theories of Covalent Bonding 11.1 Valence Bond (VB) Theory and Orbital Hybridization The Central Themes of VB Theory Types of Hybrid Orbitals 11.2 Modes of Orbital Overlap and the Types of Covalent Bonds Orbital Overlap in Single and Multiple Bonds Orbital Overlap and Rotation Within a Molecule 11.3 Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory and Electron Delocalization The Central Themes of MO Theory Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules of Period 2 Elements Two Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules: HF and NO Two Polyatomic Molecules: Benzene and Ozone CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 12 Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes 12.1 An Overview of Physical States and Phase Changes 12.2 Quantitative Aspects of Phase Changes Heat Involved in Phase Changes The Equilibrium Nature of Phase Changes Phase Diagrams: Effect of Pressure and Temperature on Physical State 12.3 Types of Intermolecular Forces How Close Can Molecules Approach Each Other? Ion-Dipole Forces Dipole-Dipole Forces The Hydrogen Bond Polarizability and Induced Dipole Forces Dispersion (London) Forces 12.4 Properties of the Liquid State Surface Tension Capillarity Viscosity 12.5 The Uniqueness of Water Solvent Properties of Water Thermal Properties of Water Surface Properties of Water The Unusual Density of Solid Water 12.6 The Solid State: Structure, Properties, and Bonding Structural Features of Solids TOOLS OF THE LABORATORY: X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS AND SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPY Types and Properties of Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids Bonding in Solids: Molecular Orbital Band Theory 12.7 Advanced Materials Electronic Materials Liquid Crystals Ceramic Materials Polymeric Materials Nanotechnology: Designing Materials Atom by Atom CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 13 The Properties of Mixtures: Solutions and Colloids 13.1 Types of Solutions: Intermolecular Forces and Solubility Intermolecular Forces in Solution Liquid Solutions and the Role of Molecular Polarity Gas Solutions and Solid Solutions 13.2 Intermolecular Forces and Biological Macromolecules The Structures of Proteins Dual Polarity in Soaps, Membranes, and Antibiotics The Structure of DNA 13.3 Why Substances Dissolve: Breaking Down the Solution Process The Heat of Solution and Its Components The Heat of Hydration: Dissolving Ionic Solids in Water The Solution Process and the Change in Entropy 13.4 Solubility as an Equilibrium Process Effect of Temperature on Solubility Effect of Pressure on Solubility 13.5 Concentration Terms Molarity and Molality Parts of Solute by Parts of Solution Interconverting Concentration Terms 13.6 Colligative Properties of Solutions Nonvolatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions Using Colligative Properties to Find Solute Molar Mass Volatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions Strong Electrolyte Solutions Applications of Colligative Properties 13.7 The Structure and Properties of Colloids CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING: SOLUTIONS AND COLLOIDS IN WATER PURIFICATION CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 14 Periodic Patterns in the Main-Group Elements 14.1 Hydrogen, the Simplest Atom Where Hydrogen Fits in the Periodic Table Highlights of Hydrogen Chemistry 14.2 Trends Across the Periodic Table: The Period 2 Elements 14.3 Group 1A(1): The Alkali Metals Why the Alkali Metals Are Unusual Physically Why the Alkali Metals Are So Reactive 14.4 Group 2A(2) How the Alkaline Earth and Alkali Metals Compare Physically How the Alkaline Earth and Alkali Metals Compare Chemically Diagonal Relationships: Lithium and Magnesium 14.5 Group 3A(13): The Boron Family How the Transition Elements Influence This Group's Properties Features That First Appear in This Group's Chemical Properties Highlights of Boron Chemistry Diagonal Relationships: Beryllium and Aluminum 14.6 Group 4A(14): The Carbon Family How Type of Bonding Affects Physical Properties How Bonding Changes in This Group's Compounds Highlights of Carbon Chemistry Highlights of Silicon Chemistry Diagonal Relationships: Boron and Silicon 14.7 Group 5A(15): The Nitrogen Family The Wide Range of Physical Behavior Patterns in Chemical Behavior Highlights of Nitrogen Chemistry Highlights of Phosphorus Chemistry 14.8 Group 6A(16): The Oxygen Family How the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families Compare Physically How the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families Compare Chemically Highlights of Oxygen Chemistry: Range of Oxide Properties Highlights of Sulfur Chemistry 14.9 Group 7A(17): The Halogens Physical Behavior of the Halogens Why the Halogens Are So Reactive Highlights of Halogen Chemistry 14.10 Group 8A(18): The Noble Gases How the Noble Gases and Alkali Metals Contrast Physically How Noble Gases Can Form Compounds CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 15 Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon 15.1 The Special Nature of Carbon and the Characteristics of Organic Molecules The Structural Complexity of Organic Molecules The Chemical Diversity of Organic Molecules 15.2 The Structures and Classes of Hydrocarbons Carbon Skeletons and Hydrogen Skins Alkanes: Hydrocarbons with Only Single Bonds Dispersion Forces and the Physical Properties of Alkanes Constitutional Isomerism Chiral Molecules and Optical Isomerism Alkenes: Hydrocarbons with Double Bonds Restricted Rotation and Geometric (cis-trans) Isomerism Alkynes: Hydrocarbons with Triple Bonds Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Cyclic Molecules with Delocalized π Electrons Variations on a Theme: Catenated Inorganic Hydrides TOOLS OF THE LABORATORY: NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE (NMR) SPECTROSCOPY 15.3 Some Important Classes of Organic Reactions Types of Organic Reactions The Redox Process in Organic Reactions 15.4 Properties and Reactivities of Common Functional Groups Functional Groups with Only Single Bonds Functional Groups with Double Bonds Functional Groups with Both Single and Double Bonds Functional Groups with Triple Bonds 15.5 The Monomer-Polymer Theme I: Synthetic Macromolecules Addition Polymers Condensation Polymers 15.6 The Monomer-Polymer Theme II: Biological Macromolecules Sugars and Polysaccharides Amino Acids and Proteins Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO GENETICS AND FORENSICS: DNA SEQUENCING AND FINGERPRINTING CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 16 Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions 16.1 Focusing on Reaction Rate 16.2 Expressing the Reaction Rate Average, Instantaneous, and Initial Reaction Rates Expressing Rate in Terms of Reactant and Product Concentrations 16.3 The Rate Law and Its Components Some Laboratory Methods for Determining the Initial Rate Determining Reaction Orders Determining the Rate Constant 16.4 Integrated Rate Laws: Concentration Changes over Time Integrated Rate Laws for First-, Second-, and Zero-Order Reactions Determining Reaction Orders from an Integrated Rate Law Reaction Half-Life 16.5 Theories of Chemical Kinetics Collision Theory: Basis of the Rate Law Transition State Theory: What the Activation Energy Is Used For 16.6 Reaction Mechanisms: The Steps from Reactant to Product Elementary Reactions and Molecularity The Rate-Determining Step of a Reaction Mechanism Correlating the Mechanism with the Rate Law 16.7 Catalysis: Speeding Up a Reaction The Basis of Catalytic Action Homogeneous Catalysis Heterogeneous Catalysis Kinetics and Function of Biological Catalysts CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE: DEPLETION OF EARTH'S OZONE LAYER CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 17 Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions 17.1 The Equilibrium State and the Equilibrium Constant 17.2 The Reaction Quotient and the Equilibrium Constant The Changing Value of the Reaction Quotient Writing the Reaction Quotient in Its Various Forms 17.3 Expressing Equilibria with Pressure Terms: Relation Between Kc and Kp 17.4 Comparing Q and K to Determine Reaction Direction 17.5 How to Solve Equilibrium Problems Using Quantities to Find the Equilibrium Constant Using the Equilibrium Constant to Find Quantities Problems Involving Mixtures of Reactants and Products 17.6 Reaction Conditions and Equilibrium: Le Châtelier's Principle The Effect of a Change in Concentration The Effect of a Change in Pressure (Volume) The Effect of a Change in Temperature The Lack of Effect of a Catalyst Applying Le Châtelier's Principle to the Synthesis of Ammonia CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO CELLULAR METABOLISM: DESIGN AND CONTROL OF A METABOLIC PATHWAY CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 18 Acid-Base Equilibria 18.1 Acids and Bases in Water Release of H+ or OH− and the Arrhenius Acid-Base Definition Variation in Acid Strength: The Acid-Dissociation Constant (Ka) Classifying the Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases 18.2 Autoionization of Water and the pH Scale The Equilibrium Nature of Autoionization: The Ion-Product Constant for Water (Kw) Expressing the Hydronium Ion Concentration: The pH Scale 18.3 Proton Transfer and the Brønsted-Lowry Acid-Base Definition Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs Relative Acid-Base Strength and the Net Direction of Reaction 18.4 Solving Problems Involving Weak-Acid Equilibria Finding Ka Given Concentrations Finding Concentrations Given Ka The Effect of Concentration on the Extent of Acid Dissociation The Behavior of Polyprotic Acids 18.5 Molecular Properties and Acid Strength Acid Strength of Nonmetal Hydrides Acid Strength of Oxoacids Acidity of Hydrated Metal Ions 18.6 Weak Bases and Their Relation to Weak Acids Molecules as Weak Bases: Ammonia and the Amines Anions of Weak Acids as Weak Bases The Relation Between Ka and Kb of a Conjugate Acid-Base Pair 18.7 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions Salts That Yield Neutral Solutions Salts That Yield Acidic Solutions Salts That Yield Basic Solutions Salts of Weakly Acidic Cations and Weakly Basic Anions Salts of Amphiprotic Anions 18.8 Generalizing the Brønsted-Lowry Concept: The Leveling Effect 18.9 Electron-Pair Donation and the Lewis Acid-Base Definition Molecules as Lewis Acids Metal Cations as Lewis Acids An Overview of Acid-Base Definitions CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 19 Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems 19.1 Equilibria of Acid-Base Buffers What a Buffer Is and How It Works: The Common-Ion Effect The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation Buffer Capacity and Buffer Range Preparing a Buffer 19.2 Acid-Base Titration Curves Strong Acid-Strong Base Titration Curves Weak Acid-Strong Base Titration Curves Weak Base-Strong Acid Titration Curves Monitoring pH with Acid-Base Indicators Titration Curves for Polyprotic Acids Amino Acids as Biological Polyprotic Acids 19.3 Equilibria of Slightly Soluble Ionic Compounds The Ion-Product Expression (Qsp) and the Solubility-Product Constant (Ksp) Calculations Involving the Solubility-Product Constant Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility Effect of pH on Solubility Applying Ionic Equilibria to the Formation of a Limestone Cave Predicting the Formation of a Precipitate: Qsp vs. Ksp Separating Ions by Selective Precipitation and Simultaneous Equilibria CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: THE ACID-RAIN PROBLEM 19.4 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions Formation of Complex Ions Complex Ions and the Solubility of Precipitates Complex Ions of Amphoteric Hydroxides CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 20 Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and Reaction Direction 20.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Predicting Spontaneous Change The First Law of Thermodynamics Does Not Predict Spontaneous Change The Sign of ΔH Does Not Predict Spontaneous Change Freedom of Particle Motion and Dispersal of Kinetic Energy Entropy and the Number of Microstates Quantitative Meaning of an Entropy Change-Measuring Thermodynamic Variables Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics Standard Molar Entropies and the Third Law Predicting Relative S° of a System 20.2 Calculating the Change in Entropy of a Reaction Entropy Changes in the System: Standard Entropy of Reaction (ΔS°rxn) Entropy Changes in the Surroundings: The Other Part of the Total The Entropy Change and the Equilibrium State Spontaneous Exothermic and Endothermic Changes 20.3 Entropy, Free Energy, and Work Free Energy Change and Reaction Spontaneity Calculating Standard Free Energy Changes The Free Energy Change and the Work a System Can Do The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Spontaneity Coupling of Reactions to Drive a Nonspontaneous Change CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO BIOLOGICAL ENERGETICS: THE UNIVERSAL ROLE OF ATP 20.4 Free Energy, Equilibrium, and Reaction Direction CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 21 Electrochemistry: Chemical Change and Electrical Work 21.1 Redox Reactions and Electrochemical Cells A Quick Review of Oxidation-Reduction Concepts Half-Reaction Method for Balancing Redox Reactions An Overview of Electrochemical Cells 21.2 Voltaic Cells: Using Spontaneous Reactions to Generate Electrical Energy Construction and Operation of a Voltaic Cell Notation for a Voltaic Cell Why Does a Voltaic Cell Work? 21.3 Cell Potential: Output of a Voltaic Cell Standard Cell Potential (E°cell) Relative Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents Using E°half-cell Values to Write Spontaneous Redox Reactions Explaining the Activity Series of the Metals 21.4 Free Energy and Electrical Work Standard Cell Potential and the Equilibrium Constant The Effect of Concentration on Cell Potential Following Changes in Potential During Cell Operation Concentration Cells 21.5 Electrochemical Processes in Batteries Primary (Nonrechargeable) Batteries Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries Fuel Cells 21.6 Corrosion: An Environmental Voltaic Cell The Corrosion of Iron Protecting Against the Corrosion of Iron 21.7 Electrolytic Cells: Using Electrical Energy to Drive Nonspontaneous Reactions Construction and Operation of an Electrolytic Cell Predicting the Products of Electrolysis Stoichiometry of Electrolysis: The Relation Between Amounts of Charge and Products CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO BIOLOGICAL ENERGETICS: CELLULAR ELECTROCHEMISTRY AND THE PRODUCTION OF ATP CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 22 The Elements in Nature and Industry 22.1 How the Elements Occur in Nature Earth's Structure and the Abundance of the Elements Sources of the Elements 22.2 The Cycling of Elements Through the Environment The Carbon Cycle The Nitrogen Cycle The Phosphorus Cycle 22.3 Metallurgy: Extracting a Metal from Its Ore Pretreating the Ore Converting Mineral to Element Refining and Alloying the Element 22.4 Tapping the Crust: Isolation and Uses of Selected Elements Producing the Alkali Metals: Sodium and Potassium The Indispensable Three: Iron, Copper, and Aluminum Mining the Sea for Magnesium The Sources and Uses of Hydrogen 22.5 Chemical Manufacturing: Two Case Studies Sulfuric Acid, the Most Important Chemical The Chlor-Alkali Process CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 23 Transition Elements and Their Coordination Com-pounds 23.1 Properties of the Transition Elements Electron Configurations of the Transition Metals and Their Ions Atomic and Physical Properties of the Transition Elements Chemical Properties of the Transition Elements 23.2 The Inner Transition Elements The Lanthanides The Actinides 23.3 Coordination Compounds Complex Ions: Coordination Numbers, Geometries, and Ligands Formulas and Names of Coordination Compounds Isomerism in Coordination Compounds 23.4 Theoretical Basis for the Bonding and Properties of Complex Ions Applying Valence Bond Theory to Complex Ions Crystal Field Theory CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO NUTRITIONAL SCIENCE: TRANSITION METALS AS ESSENTIAL DIETARY TRACE ELEMENTS CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Chapter 24 Nuclear Reactions and Their Applications 24.1 Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Stability Comparing Chemical and Nuclear Change The Components of the Nucleus: Terms and Notation The Discovery of Radioactivity and the Types of Emissions Modes of Radioactive Decay; Balancing Nuclear Equations Nuclear Stability and the Mode of Decay 24.2 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay Detection and Measurement of Radioactivity The Rate of Radioactive Decay Radioisotopic Dating 24.3 Nuclear Transmutation: Induced Changes in Nuclei Early Transmutation Experiments; Nuclear Shorthand Notation Particle Accelerators and the Transuranium Elements 24.4 Ionization: Effects of Nuclear Radiation on Matter Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Living Tissue Background Sources of Ionizing Radiation Assessing the Risk from Ionizing Radiation 24.5 Applications of Radioisotopes Radioactive Tracers Additional Applications of Ionizing Radiation 24.6 The Interconversion of Mass and Energy The Mass Difference Between a Nucleus and Its Nucleons Nuclear Binding Energy and Binding Energy per Nucleon 24.7 Applications of Fission and Fusion The Process of Nuclear Fission The Promise of Nuclear Fusion CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO COSMOLOGY: ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS IN THE STARS CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE PROBLEMS Appendix A Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry Appendix B Standard Thermodynamic Values for Selected Substances Appendix C Equilibrium Constants for Selected Substances Appendix D Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials Appendix E Answers to Selected Problems Glossary Index