Persulfate-based Advanced Oxidation Processes in Other Applications

Description

Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) use chemical treatment to remove contaminants from water by oxidation with hydroxyl radicals. These hydroxyl radicals can be produced using UV light, ozone or hydrogen peroxide, but recently reactions have been developed that use persulfates as the radical source. Persulfates are strong oxidants with flexible in situ activation characteristics, including activation with heat, alkali conditions, electricity, ultrasonic treatment, transition metals, carbon and even organics. Persulfate activation can generate sulfate radicals as well as other reactive species. These reactive species, especially the sulfate radical, can degrade most organic pollutants making them valuable in the fields of water purification, soil remediation, disinfection, sludge dewatering, and other important applications in environmental systems. Describing recent developments in persulfate-based AOPs, this book aims to provide a summary of environmental applications for persulfate-based AOPs and to guide the reader, in a comprehensive way, through various advanced oxidation processes in environmental applications. Topics include new activation methods, activation mechanisms, and advanced materials for use in activating persulfate-based AOPs for different environmental applications. Cover Half Title Chemistry in the Environment Series Persulfate-based Oxidation Processes in Environmental Remediation Copyright Preface Contents 1. Methods of Persulfate Activation for the Degradation of Pollutants: Fundamentals and Influencing Parameters 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Alkaline Activation 1.2.1 Basic Concepts 1.2.2 Application of a Catalyst 1.2.3 Influence of Operating Conditions 1.3 Organic Substrate Activation 1.3.1 Basic Concepts 1.3.2 Influence of Operating Conditions 1.4 Catalytic Activation 1.4.1 Basic Concepts 1.4.2 Metal- based Catalysts 1.4.3 Carbon-based Catalysts 1.4.4 Influence of Operating Conditions 1.5 Heat Activation 1.5.1 Basic Concepts 1.5.2 Influence of Operating Conditions 1.6 Microwave Activation 1.6.1 Basic Concepts 1.6.2 Application of Catalysts 1.6.3 Influence of Operating Conditions 1.7 Ultrasonic Activation 1.7.1 Basic Concepts 1.7.2 Application of Catalysts 1.7.3 Influence of Operating Conditions 1.8 Photo Activation 1.8.1 Basic Concepts 1.8.2 Direct Activation 1.8.3 Dye Sensitizing 1.8.4 Application of Catalysts 1.8.5 Influence of Operating Conditions 1.9 Electro Activation 1.9.1 Basic Concepts 1.9.2 Influence of Operating Conditions Acknowledgements References 2. Photo-activated Persulfate-based Advanced Oxidation for Water Treatment 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Fundamentals of Photo-activated PS- AOPs 2.3 UV-based Photo-activated PS-AOPs 2.4 Fe- based Photo-activated PS-AOPs 2.5 TiO2-based Photo-activated PS-AOPs 2.6 Other Metal-based Photo-activated PS-AOPs 2.7 Bimetallic Photo-activated PS-AOPs 2.8 Carbonaceous Photo-activated PS-AOPs 2.9 Conclusion and Prospects References 3. Electrochemical Activation of Persulfate for Organic Pollution Control in Water 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Synergistic Effects of Combining Electrolysis with Persulfate 3.3 Influence of Operational Factors 3.3.1 Electrode Types 3.3.1.1 Metal Oxide Electrodes 3.3.1.2 Boron-doped Diamond (BDD) Film Electrodes 3.3.1.3 Carbon-based Electrodes 3.3.2 Current Intensity 3.3.3 pH 3.3.4 Temperature 3.3.5 Initial Persulfate Concentration 3.3.6 Water Matrices 3.3.7 Others 3.4 Mechanisms 3.4.1 Electrochemical Anode Activation of Persulfate 3.4.2 Electrochemical Cathode Activation of Persulfate 3.5 Outlook Acknowledgements References 4. Reactive Oxygen Species in Catalytically Activated Peroxydisulfate 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Reactive Oxygen Species in Catalytically Activated Persulfate and Their Detection Techniques 4.3 The Role of pH on ROS 4.4 Role of the Matrix Constituents on ROS Generation 4.4.1 Chloride Influence 4.4.2 Bromide Influence 4.4.3 Carbonate/bicarbonate Influence 4.4.4 Phosphate Buffer Influence 4.4.5 Other Influences 4.5 The role of Catalytic Activation on ROS Generation 4.5.1 Homogeneous Activation Process 4.5.2 Heterogeneous Activation Process 4.5.2.1 Metallic Catalysts 4.5.2.2 Carbon Catalysts 4.5.2.2.1 Activation of PDS with sp2 Carbon 4.5.2.2.2 Activation of PDS with sp3 and Other Carbon 4.6 Conclusions Acknowledgements References 5. Heterogeneous Activation of Persulfate Using Metal and Metal Oxides 5.1 PS Activation by Zero-valent Iron and Zero-valent Copper 5.1.1 Zero-valent Iron (ZVI) 5.1.2 Zero-valent Copper (ZVC) 5.1.3 Merits of PS Activation by Zero-valent Metals 5.2 PS Activation by Iron Oxides 5.3 PS activation by Spinel Ferrites 5.4 PS Activation by Cobalt Oxides 5.5 PS Activation by Manganese Oxides 5.6 Conclusions References 6. Metal-free Carbocatalysis for Persulfate Activation Toward Organic Oxidation 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Fundamental Principles in Carbocatalysis for PS Activation 6.2.1 Classification of Activation Pathways 6.2.2 Identification Strategies of Activation Pathways 6.2.3 Determination of Active Sites on CBMs for PS activation 6.3 Application of CBMs for PS activation 6.3.1 Catalytic Performance of Pristine CBMs in PS activation 6.3.2 Tailored Modification for Promoting Carbocatalysis in PS activation 6.3.3 Differences Between Radical and Nonradical Pathways in PS Activation 6.4 Challenges and Prospects 6.5 Conclusions References 7. Persulfate- based Advanced Oxidation Processes in Environmental Remediation: Theoretical Chemistry Study 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Advantages of Theoretical Chemical Calculations 7.3 Persulfate-based Advanced Oxidation Processes 7.4 Application of DFT Calculations for P-AOP Systems 7.4.1 The Basic Indicators of Persulfate Activation 7.4.2 Active and Degradable Sites for Persulfate and Pollutants 7.4.3 Pathways of Persulfate Activation and Pollutant Degradation 7.4.4 Influencing Factors on Persulfate-based Advanced Oxidation Systems 7.5 Criteria of Theoretical Chemistry to Evaluate the P-AOPs Performance 7.6 Conclusions and Prospects Acknowledgements References 8. Sulfate Radical-based Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water and Wastewater Disinfection 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Microorganism Inactivation by Various SO4•–based Processes 8.2.1 Inactivation by SO4•–based Processes Mediated by Iron Species 8.2.2 Inactivation by SO4•–based Processes Mediated by Light 8.2.3 Inactivation by SO4•–based Processes Mediated by a Base 8.2.4 Inactivation by Piezo-catalytic and Electro-catalytic Processes 8.3 Effects of Operational and Environmental Conditions 8.3.1 Effect of CT Value 8.3.2 Effect of pH 8.3.3 Effect of Water Matrix Components 8.4 Mechanisms of Microorganism Inactivation by SO4•–based Processes 8.4.1 Generation and Contribution of Reactive Species 8.4.2 Destruction of Microorganisms 8.5 Formation of Disinfection By-products 8.5.1 Formation of Inorganic By-products 8.5.2 Formation of Organic By-products 8.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives Acknowledgements References 9. Inactivation of Pathogenic Microorganisms with Sulfate Radical-based Advanced Oxidation Processes 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Sulfate Radical Generation 9.2.1 Thermal Activation 9.2.2 Alkaline Activation 9.2.3 Radiation Activation 9.2.4 Transition Metals 9.2.5 Carbon-based Catalysts 9.3 Inactivation of Pathogens with SR-AOPs 9.4 Inactivation of Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria and Genes 9.5 Inactivation Mechanisms and Kinetics 9.5.1 Mechanisms of Sulfate Radical Generation 9.5.2 Mechanisms of Bacteria Inactivation 9.6 Pilot/Full Scale Applications: Economic Assessment 9.7 Conclusions and Perspectives Acknowledgements References 10. Persulfate Application for Landfill Leachate Treatment: Current Status and Challenges 10.1 Introduction: Landfill Leachate Characterizations 10.2 Advanced Oxidation Processes with Focus on Persulfate Activation 10.3 Persulfate Activation by Homogeneous Activators(Transition Metals) for Landfill Leachate Treatment 10.4 Heterogeneous Persulfate Activation by Transition Metals for Landfill Leachate Treatment 10.5 Persulfate Activation by High Energy InputMethods (Microwave, Heat, Ultraviolet, and Ultrasound) for Landfill Leachate Treatment 10.5.1 Microwave/Persulfate 10.5.2 Heat/Persulfate 10.5.3 Persulfate Activation by UV and US 10.6 Other Persulfate Activation Methods for Landfill Leachate Treatment 10.7 Meta-analysis of the Existing Literature on LL Treatment by Persulfate Activation 10.8 Conclusions, Perspectives, and Future Challenges Acknowledgements References 11. Novel Strategy for Soil Remediation of Contaminated Sites Using Persulfate-based Advanced Oxidation Technologies 1.1 Limitation of Traditional Technologies for Contaminated Site Remediation 11.1.1 Incineration 11.1.2 Thermal Desorption 11.1.3 Soil Vapor Extraction 11.1.4 Soil Washing 11.1.5 Bioremediation 11.1.6 Electroremediation 11.1.7 In Situ Chemical Oxidation 11.2 Advanced Oxidation Processes for Soil Remediation 11.2.1 PDS-based AOPs 11.2.2 PMS-based AOPs 11.3 Fundamental Knowledge of Persulfate Activation for Pollutant Degradation in Soil 11.3.1 Degradation Reaction Process 11.3.2 Mechanism and Influencing Factors 11.3.3 Non-radical Activation Pathways 11.3.4 Key Influential Factors of SR-AOPs 11.4 Underlying Mechanism of Persulfate Interaction with Soil Components 11.4.1 Decomposition of Peroxydisulfate (PDS) by Soil Minerals 11.4.2 Decomposition of Peroxymonosulfate (PMS) by Soil Minerals 11.4.3 Interaction of Persulfate with SOM 11.4.4 Soil Chemistry Processes of Persulfate in Soil Liquid Phases 11.5 Many Case Studies of Persulfate Used in Field Applications for Soil 11.5.1 Persulfate Without Direct Activation for Soil Remediation 11.5.2 Persulfate Activated by Activators for Soil Remediation 11.5.3 Thermally Activated Persulfate for Soil Remediation 11.6 Combination of Persulfate with Other Remediation Methods 11.6.1 Biological SR-AOPs Methods 11.6.2 Electrokinetic SR-AOPs Methods 11.6.3 Chemical Oxidation and Reduction SR-AOP Methods 11.6.4 Thermal Remediation SR-AOP Methods 11.6.5 Mechanochemical (MC) SR- AOP Methods References 12. Persulfate-based Advanced Oxidation Processes in Other Applications 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Application of Persulfate in Deep Dewatering of Sludge 12.3 Application of Persulfate in Activated Carbon Regeneration 12.4 Application of Persulfate to Contaminated Soil Remediation 12.5 Application of Persulfate in Waste Gas Treatment 12.5.1 Application of Persulfate in Desulfurization and Denitrification 12.5.2 Application of Persulfate in Exhaust Gas Deodorization 12.5.3 Application of Persulfate in Mercury Removal 12.6 Application of Persulfate in Metal Recovery 12.6.1 Application of Persulfate in Silver Recovery 12.6.2 Application of Persulfate in Copper Recovery 12.7 Application of Persulfate in Water Quality Analysis 12.7.1 Application of Persulfate in the Determination of Total Phosphorus in Water 12.7.2 Application of Persulfate in the Determination of Total Nitrogen in Water 12.7.3 Application of Persulfate in theDetermination of Total Organic Carbon in Water 12.8 Conclusion References Subject Index