Status and Future Challenges for Non-conventional Energy Sources, Volume 1

Description

This book highlights recent advancements in such an important topic, through contribution from experts demonstrating different applications in ‘day-to-day’ life, both existing and newly emerging non-biological technologies, and thought provoking approaches from different parts of the world, potential future prospects associated with some frontier development in non-conventional energy sources. It covers different types of natural energy sources such as: Ocean, Tidal and Wave energy; Nuclear energy; Solar cells; Geothermal energy; Hydrogen Fuel; Photovoltaic modules; Gas hydrates; Hydrate-based Desalination Technology; and Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Kraft Lignin/ Lignocellulosic Biomass to Fuels and Chemicals. This book is a comprehensive and informative compilation for international readers, especially undergraduate and post graduate students and researchers. Preface Contents About the Editors Chapter 1: Ocean, Tidal and Wave Energy: Science and Challenges 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Ocean Energy 1.2.1 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Systems 1.2.1.1 Closed-Cycle OTEC 1.2.1.2 Open-Cycle OTEC 1.2.1.3 Hybrid OTEC Plants 1.2.2 Ocean Energy Potential 1.3 Tidal Energy 1.3.1 Tidal Energy Extraction 1.3.2 Turbines 1.3.2.1 Bulb Turbine 1.3.2.2 Edge Turbine 1.3.3 Energy Calculation 1.3.4 Tidal Power Utilization 1.4 Wave Energy 1.5 Socio-Environmental Impacts 1.5.1 Social Impacts 1.5.2 Environmental Impacts 1.6 Current Status and Future Challenges 1.7 Conclusion References Chapter 2: Nuclear Energy and Conventional Clean Fuel 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Economy of Nuclear Energy 2.2.1 Nuclear Fission 2.2.2 Fission-Based Nuclear Reactor 2.3 Nuclear Reactor Fuel 2.3.1 Nuclear Fusion 2.3.2 Fusion-Based Nuclear Reactors 2.4 Magnetic Confinement 2.5 Nuclear Waste Management 2.6 Present Scenario for Nuclear Energy and Environment 2.7 Nuclear Power Technology Advantage and Sustainable Development 2.8 Future Challenges 2.9 Summary and Conclusion References Chapter 3: Solar Cells: Application and Challenges 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Solar Cell 3.3 Classification of Solar Cells 3.3.1 Monocrystalline Silicon Cell (Mono-Si) 3.3.2 Polycrystalline Silicon Cell (Poly-Si) 3.3.3 Thin-Film Cells 3.3.3.1 Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) 3.3.3.2 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) 3.3.3.3 Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide (CIGS). 3.3.4 Organic Solar Cells 3.3.4.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSC) 3.3.4.2 Perovskite Solar Cells 3.4 Solar Cells Application 3.4.1 Solar Farms/Solar Parks 3.4.2 Remote Location 3.4.3 Standalone Devices 3.4.4 Portable Electronic Devices 3.4.5 Power in Space 3.4.6 Transportation 3.4.7 Defense and Military Uses 3.4.8 Building-Integrated Uses 3.4.9 Agriculture 3.5 Challenges and the Prospect 3.6 Conclusion References Chapter 4: Photovoltaic Modules: Battery Storage and Grid Technology 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Battery Storage Technology 4.2.1 Working 4.2.2 Battery Types 4.2.2.1 Lead-Acid Battery 4.2.2.2 Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-cd) Battery 4.2.2.3 Lithium-Ion (li-Ion) Battery 4.2.3 Present Status of Battery Technology 4.3 Sizing and Integration of Photovoltaic and Battery Systems in Distribution Grids 4.4 Grid Assembly Situations for Battery Storage Systems 4.5 Conclusions References Chapter 5: Geothermal energy: Exploration, Exploitation, and Production 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Geothermal Energy Resources 5.2.1 Formation of Geothermal Fields in the Earth 5.2.2 Types of Geothermal Resources 5.2.2.1 Shallow Reservoirs (Low Temperature) 5.2.2.2 Deep Reservoirs (High Temperature) 5.2.2.3 Deepest Reservoirs (Very High Temperature) 5.2.3 Importance of Geothermal Resources 5.2.3.1 Advantages of Geothermal Energy 5.2.3.2 Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy 5.3 Exploration Methodologies 5.3.1 Seismic Method 5.3.2 Well-Logging Method 5.3.3 Gravity Method 5.3.4 Magnetic Method 5.3.5 Electrical Method 5.3.6 Electromagnetic (EM) Method 5.3.6.1 Magnetotelluric Technique 5.4 Exploitation Methodologies 5.4.1 Exploitation Equipment 5.4.1.1 Production Pumps 5.4.1.2 Piping 5.4.1.3 Heat Exchangers 5.4.1.4 Heat Pumps 5.4.1.5 Reinjection Pumps 5.4.2 Types of Geothermal Power Plants 5.4.2.1 Dry Steam Plant 5.4.2.2 Flash Cycle Steam Plant 5.4.2.3 Binary Cycle Plants 5.5 Power Production 5.6 Other Uses of Geothermal Energy 5.7 Conclusions References Chapter 6: Application of High-Temperature Thermal Energy Storage Materials for Power Plants 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Concentrated Solar Power Plant (CSP) 6.2.1 Parabolic Trough Collector (PTC) 6.2.2 Solar Power Tower (SPT) 6.2.3 Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR) 6.2.4 Parabolic Dish System (PDS) 6.3 Heat Transfer Fluids 6.4 Thermal Energy Storage Tank 6.5 High-Temperature Thermal Energy Storage Material 6.5.1 Types of Energy Storage Materials 6.5.1.1 Sensible Heat Storage (SHS) 6.5.1.2 Latent Heat Storage 6.5.1.3 Thermochemical Storage 6.5.2 Characterization Technique of PCMs 6.6 Present Status 6.7 Challenges and Future Directions. 6.8 Summary and Conclusion References Chapter 7: Hydrogen Fuel: Clean Energy Production Technologies 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Properties and Potential Uses of Hydrogen 7.3 Role of Hydrogen as Energy Reservoir 7.4 Why Still Fossil Fuels Are Difficult to Quit? 7.5 Hydrogen Production Technologies 7.5.1 Hydrogen Generation Using Fossil Fuels 7.5.1.1 Steam Reforming of Methane (SRM) Advantages of SRM Process Disadvantages of SRM Process 7.5.1.2 Dry (CO2) Reforming of CH4 (DRM) Advantages of Dry (CO2) Reforming of CH4 (DRM) Limitations of Dry Reforming of CH4 (DRM) 7.5.1.3 Partial Oxidation of CH4 (POX) 7.5.1.4 Autothermal Reforming 7.5.1.5 Coal Gasification 7.5.2 Renewable Sources for Hydrogen Production 7.5.2.1 Biomass Gasification 7.5.2.2 Aqueous Phase Reforming (APR) 7.5.2.3 Water Electrolysis 7.5.3 Hydrogen Storage and Distribution 7.5.4 Economics of Hydrogen Production 7.6 Summary and Conclusion References Chapter 8: Natural Gas Hydrates: Energy Locked in Cages 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Facts and Properties of Natural Gas Hydrates 8.1.2 Structural Information on Natural Gas Hydrates 8.2 Natural Gas Production Methods from Gas Hydrate Reservoirs 8.2.1 Thermal Stimulation 8.2.2 Depressurization 8.2.3 Additive Injection 8.2.4 CO2 Injection 8.2.5 CO2 + N2 Injection 8.3 Comparison of Production Methods 8.4 Numerical Simulation of Gas Hydrate Reservoirs 8.5 Operational Geohazards Associated with Natural Gas Hydrates 8.6 Natural Geohazards Associated with Gas Hydrate Reservoirs 8.7 Global Climate and Natural Gas Hydrates 8.8 Future Prospects of Natural Gas Hydrates 8.9 Conclusion References Chapter 9: Gas Hydrates in Man-Made Environments: Applications, Economics, Challenges and Future Directions 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Hydrate-Based Gas Storage and Transportation 9.2.1 Process Economics for Hydrate-Based Gas Storage and Transportation 9.2.1.1 Comparison of LNG and NGH Formation Processes 9.2.1.2 Hydrogen Storage Cost Comparison 9.2.2 Future Energy Applications 9.3 Hydrate-Based Cold Energy Storage/Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Applications 9.3.1 Hydrate-Based Thermal Energy Storage Plants And their Process Economics 9.4 Hydrate-Based Gas Separation Processes 9.4.1 Post-Combustion Separation 9.4.2 Pre-Combustion Separation 9.4.3 Natural Gas Upgrading 9.5 Hydrates in Oil and Gas Industries: Flow Assurance 9.5.1 Challenges and Knowledge Gaps in Hydrate Management and Mitigation References Chapter 10: Hydrate-Based Desalination Technology: A Sustainable Approach 10.1 Introduction (Need for Desalination) 10.2 Concept of Hydrate-Based Desalination 10.3 Status of Hydrate-Based Desalination Technology 10.3.1 Guest Molecules (Hydrate Formers) Studied for Hydrate-Based Desalination Process 10.3.2 Process/Equipment Design for Hydrate-Based Desalination Processes 10.3.3 Pilot Plants to Demonstrate Hydrate-Based Desalination 10.4 Production Water Desalination 10.5 Cost Economics of Hydrate-Based Desalination Process 10.6 Challenges and the Way Forward for Hydrate-Based Desalination Technology References Chapter 11: Subsurface Decarbonization Options as CO2 Hydrates with Clean Methane Energy Recovery from Natural Gas Hydrate Res... 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Natural Gas Hydrates: A Potential Source of Energy 11.1.1.1 Origin 11.1.1.2 Worldwide Occurrence 11.1.1.3 Geologic Setting of Hydrate Reservoirs 11.1.1.4 Methane Hydrates in Oceanic and Permafrost Sediments: Structure, Cavity Occupancy and Stability in Porous Medium 11.2 Production from Natural Gas Hydrate Deposits 11.2.1 Method of Depressurization 11.2.2 Thermal Stimulation 11.2.3 Chemical Injection Method 11.2.4 Combination Methods 11.3 Subsurface CO2 Storage Options as Clathrate Hydrates 11.3.1 Oceanic Environment 11.3.2 Permafrost Environment 11.3.3 Methane Hydrate Reservoirs: CO2-CH4 Replacement for Clean Methane Energy Recovery 11.3.3.1 Schemes of Displacing the Methane (CH4) by Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in Hydrate Sediments 11.3.3.2 Laboratory Investigations: Macroscale (Bulk/Porous Media) and Microscale Experiments 11.4 Summary References Chapter 12: Combined Heating and Cooling System with Phase Change Material: A Novel Approach 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Thermal Energy Storage Methods 12.2.1 Sensible Heat Storage 12.2.2 Thermochemical Heat Storage 12.2.3 Latent Heat Storage 12.2.3.1 Phase Change Material (PCM) Organic PCM Inorganic PCM Eutectic PCM 12.3 Selection Criteria of PCM 12.4 Future Trends of PCM 12.4.1 Encapsulation Techniques of PCM 12.4.1.1 Classification of Encapsulation Macroencapsulation Microencapsulation Nanoencapsulation 12.4.2 Inclusion of Nanoparticles 12.5 Applications of PCM 12.6 Heat Exchangers 12.7 Solar Thermal Energy Storage in Buildings 12.8 Space Heating 12.8.1 Passive Solar Space Heating 12.8.1.1 Direct Gain 12.8.1.2 Indirect Gain 12.8.1.3 Isolated Gain 12.8.2 Active Heating 12.8.2.1 Liquid-Based System 12.8.2.2 Air-Based System 12.8.2.3 Under-Floor Heating 12.8.2.4 Domestic Hot Water 12.9 Solar Thermal Energy for Cooling 12.10 Sorption Technologies 12.10.1 Absorption Chiller 12.10.2 Adsorption Air Cooling System 12.10.3 Air Conditioning and Refrigeration System 12.10.3.1 Vapor Compression System 12.11 Combined Heating and Cooling System 12.12 Case Studies 12.12.1 Case Study 1 12.12.1.1 A Modern Combined Cooling, Heating and Power (CCHP) System at the School of Engineering, Urmia University (SEUU) at ... 12.12.2 Case Study 2 12.12.2.1 Two-Stage Rotary Desiccant Solar Evacuated Collector-Driven Cooling/Heating System at Himin Solar Company, China 12.12.3 Case Study 3 12.12.3.1 Absorption Chiller Constructed by Solar Parabolic Trough for the Co-Supply of District Heating and Cooling System at... 12.12.4 Case Study 4 12.12.4.1 Experimental Validation of a New Presizing Tool for Solar Heating and Cooling and Domestic Hot Water (DHW) System 12.12.5 Case Study 5 12.12.5.1 Combined Heating and Cooling Research Work at Solar Thermal Energy Laboratory, Department of Green Energy Technology... 12.13 Conclusion References Chapter 13: Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) of Kraft Lignin (KL) Recovered from Lignocellulosic Biomass: State of the Art 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Lignin-Structure, Processing, and Characterization 13.3 Kraft Lignin (KL) 13.4 Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) of Kraft Lignin (KL)-State of the Art 13.4.1 Effect of Physical and Operational Parameters 13.5 Summary and Conclusion References Chapter 14: Catalytic Hydropyrolysis and Hydrodeoxygenation of Biomass and Model Compounds for Fuels and Chemicals 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 Lignocellulosic Biomass 14.1.2 Biomass Conversion Techniques 14.1.2.1 Types of Pyrolysis 14.1.2.2 Influence of Feedstock Factors 14.1.3 Typical Composition of Bio-Oil 14.1.4 Properties of Bio-Oil 14.1.5 Applications of Bio-Oil 14.1.6 Catalytic Fast Pyrolysis (CFP) 14.1.6.1 Effect of Operating Conditions Reactive Gas Ambience Hydrogen Pressure and Pyrolysis Temperature 14.1.6.2 Effect of HDO Catalysts Noble Metals Non-noble Metal Catalysts Zeolite Cracking 14.1.6.3 Mode of Upgradation: Ex-situ vs In-situ 14.1.7 Model Compounds 14.1.7.1 Furan Derivatives 14.1.7.2 Phenolic Compounds Phenol Cresol Anisole Guaiacol and Syringol Vanillyl Alcohol 14.1.7.3 Linear Oxygenates 14.1.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects References