Handbook of Biofuels Production: Processes and Technologies

Description

Handbook of Biofuels Production: Processes and Technologies, Third Edition provides a comprehensive and systematic reference on a range of biomass conversion processes and technologies. In response to the global increase in the use of biofuels as substitute transportation fuels, advanced chemical, biochemical and thermochemical biofuels production routes are quickly being developed. Substantial additions for this new edition include increased coverage of emerging feedstocks, including microalgae, more emphasis on by-product valorization for biofuels’ production, additional chapters on emerging biofuel production methods, and co-production of biofuels and bioproducts. The book's editorial team is strengthened by the addition of an extra member, and a number of new contributors have been invited to work with authors from the first and second edition to revise existing chapters, with each offering fresh perspectives. This book is an essential reference for professional engineers in the biofuel industry as well as researchers in academia, from post-graduate level and up. Cover Front Matter Copyright Contributors Preface Introduction: An overview of biofuels and production technologies Introduction Biofuel production processes and technologies Biofuel production from various feedstocks Physical, chemical, and biochemical processes and technologies Microbes involved in biofuel production processes Technoeconomic and environmental assessment Challenges, opportunities, and future prospects in biofuel production Challenges: Socioeconomic and technological challenges Opportunities and future prospects in biofuel production: Replacement of fossil fuels Conclusion References Biofuels: Technology, economics, and policy issues Introduction Moving from fossil fuel to biofuels: Insights from sociotechnical transition theory Assessment of first- and next-generation biofuels First-generation: Bioethanol, biodiesel, and other biofuels Bioethanol Biodiesel Other biofuels Beyond the first-generation biofuels Integrated biorefineries: Making biofuel along with other high-added-value products Economic, environmental, and social issues Socioeconomic issues Socioenvironmental issues Policy actions and regulatory frameworks Brazilian incentive and regulatory systems United States incentive and regulatory systems European Union incentive and regulatory systems Conclusions References Further reading Feedstocks and challenges to biofuel development Introduction First-generation (1G) feedstocks Sugar feedstocks Starch feedstocks Edible oil feedstocks Second-generation (2G) feedstocks Lignocellulosic feedstocks Non-edible oil feedstocks Third-generation (3G) feedstocks Conclusions and future outlook Disclaimer References Production of biofuel via catalytic upgrading and refining of sustainable oleaginous feedstocks Introduction: Renewable diesel Overview of biodiesel production and feedstock The advantages of biodiesel Oil feedstocks for biodiesel production Catalytic biodiesel production Recent advances in low-cost catalysts for biodiesel production Waste-derived catalysts and oil feedstocks Carbon-based catalysts Natural catalysts Effect of pore networks and surface functionality Hierarchical macroporous-mesoporous solid acid and solid base materials Production of green diesel Fatty acid deoxygenation Reaction pathways Factors affecting reaction rate Catalyst formulation Impact of reaction conditions Deoxygenation of palm fatty acid distillate Concluding remarks Acknowledgments References Biotechnological production of biofuels Introduction Lipases Enzymatic production of biodiesel Extracellular and intracellular lipases Lipase immobilization Lipase immobilization via physical adsorption Lipase immobilization via ionic bonding versus covalent bonding Lipase immobilization via entrapment or encapsulation Lipase immobilization via cross-linking Commercialization of immobilized lipase for biodiesel production Variables affecting the enzymatic transesterification reaction Lipid source Acyl acceptor Temperature Water content Inhibition by alcohol Inhibition by glycerol Pretreatment for improving lipase stability. New tendencies in the enzymatic production of biodiesel Novel immobilization techniques Use of a combination of lipases from different sources Ionic liquids as a solvent in enzyme-catalyzed transesterification Enzyme-catalyzed transesterification under a supercritical CO2 medium Statistical approaches for reaction optimization Enzyme-catalyzed transesterification for low-cost and high free-fatty-acid feedstocks Biofuels similar to biodiesel produced using acyl acceptors other than methanol Biodiesel produced together with glycerol triacetate in the same transesterification process as oils and fats Biodiesel produced with fatty acid glycerol carbonate esters in the same transesterification process as oils and fats Biodiesel produced together with monoacylglycerol in the same transesterification process as oils and fats Industrial biodiesel production using enzymes Conclusions Acknowledgments References Biodiesel production from microbial lipids using oleaginous yeasts Introduction Oleaginous yeasts SCO metabolism in oleaginous yeasts SCO synthesis TAG and fatty acid degradation Regulation of TAG and fatty acid synthesis Oleaginous microorganism engineering Enhancing the synthetic pathway Blocking competitive pathways Lipid synthesis regulation Feedstock for SCO production Lignocellulose Nonfood biomass Industrial and agricultural by-products Industrial and urban wastewater SCO production techniques High-value-added polyunsaturated fatty acids Conclusions and future prospects References Biochemical production of bioalcohols Introduction Types of bioalcohols Biomethanol Bioethanol Biobutanol Biopropanol Bioalcohol production from lignocellulose hydrolysate Processing of biomass Bioalcohol production from lignocellulose via CBP using single microbes Bioethanol production from cellulose via CBP Biobutanol production from lignocellulose via CBP Bioalcohol production from lignocellulose via CBP through co-cultivation Acknowledgments References Production of biogas via anaerobic digestion Introduction Process steps of anaerobic digestion Factors affecting the AD process Temperature pH, volatile, and long-chain fatty acids, free ammonia Feedstock composition Trace elements Feedstocks used for biogas and fertilizer production Sewage sludge Food waste Agro-industrial wastes Lignocellulosic biomass Algae biomass Co-digestion Anaerobic bioreactor technology Complete mixed anaerobic digester: Anaerobic contact process Fixed-bed reactors Expanded-fluidized bed reactors Anaerobic baffled reactors (ABRs) Up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors (UASBRs) Plug flow reactor (PFR) Anaerobic membrane digesters (AnMBRs) Leach bed reactors (LBRs) Anaerobic digestion modeling Biological biogas upgrade Integration of biogas plants in the circular economy concept Conclusions and future trends References Lignocellulose biorefinery advances the liquid biofuel platform Introduction A low-carbon future Renewable resources Biorefinery Oil versus wood refining Reductive catalytic fractionation Lignin oil separation Advanced liquid biofuel platform Bioethanol in benchmark technology Biomass pretreatment Enzymatic saccharification Yeast fermentation Downstream processing Holocellulose-derived biofuels Holocellulose conversion Naphtha and gasoline Kerosene and diesel Lignin-derived biofuels Lignin conversion Gasoline from lignin monomers Kerosene and diesel from lignin dimers and oligomers Conclusion References Chemical routes for the conversion of cellulosic platform molecules into high-energy-density biofuels Introduction Oxygenated fuels via 5-HMF: Furanic compounds 2,5-Dimethylfuran (DMF) 5-Ethoxymethylfurfural (EMF), an ether of 5-HMF Acetoxymethylfurfural (AMF), an ester of 5-HMF Levulinic acid as a platform molecule for oxygenated fuels: Alkyl levulinates and valeric biofuels Esterification: Alkyl levulinates γ-Valerolactone (GVL) and valeric biofuels Oxygenated fuels via furfural: Furan derivatives Furfural hydrogenation toward oxygenated biofuels Esters and ethers from furfuryl alcohol GVL from furfural Blending of oxygenated biofuels with conventional fuels Furan derivatives as platform molecules for liquid hydrocarbon fuels 5-HMF upgrading via CC coupling reactions Furfural upgrading via CC coupling reactions Catalytic conversion of LA and its derivatives into fuel-range hydrocarbons Direct conversion of LA: Aldol condensation and ketonization Aldol condensation of LA Ketonization of LA Upgrading of ALs to long-chain hydrocarbons Upgrading of GVL into long-chain hydrocarbons Final remarks and future outlook Acknowledgments References The catalytic processes for the deoxygenation and densification of biofuels Introduction Catalytic approaches for deoxygenation of bio-crude C-C coupling strategies for bio-crude densification Hydrotreatment of bio-crude Type of reactors for embedding catalysts for near complete deoxygenation References Production of bio-syngas and bio-hydrogen by gasification Introduction The gasification process Feedstocks Syngas production SMR ATR Combined reforming POX Membrane reactors H2 production Biomass Solid waste Black liquor Products and product quality Syngas H2 Wet scrubbing PSA units Membrane systems Cryogenic separation The future References Production of biofuels via Fischer-Tropsch synthesis: Biomass-to-liquids Introduction Biomass-to-liquid process steps and technologies Biomass gasification to syngas Gasifiers Syngas cleaning and conditioning Synthesis of biofuels via Fischer-Tropsch synthesis Fischer-Tropsch catalysts Iron catalysts Cobalt catalysts Suitable catalysts for the BTL-FT process Reactors and process conditions Fixed-bed reactors Fluidized-bed reactors Slurry reactors Upgrading of biomass-to-liquid products Hydrocracking of BTL wax to diesel Fluid catalytic cracking of BTL wax to gasoline Upgrading of BTL naphtha to gasoline Upgrading of BTL fractions to jet fuel Biomass-to-liquid final fuel products Biomass-to-liquid diesel Biomass-to-liquid naphtha Biomass-to-liquid jet fuel Environmental and economic considerationsoftheBTL process Commercial status of the biomass-to-liquid processes Future prospects and challenges References Integrated biorefineries for the co-production of biofuels and high-value products Introduction Integrated production of biofuels and high-value products Coproduction of two or more types of biofuels Coproduction of biofuels by nonbiological methods Co-production of biofuels by biological methods Co-production of biofuel with biochemicals Co-production of bioethanol with biochemicals Co-production of butanol with biochemicals Co-production of biodiesel with biochemicals Co-production of biohydrogen with biochemicals Co-production of biofuels with biopolymers Co-production of biofuel with other value-added products Case studies Case study 1: Biodiesel production with glycerol Case study 2: Bioethanol co-production with arabinoxylans Conclusion and future work Acknowledgments References Microalgae for biofuels: A prospective feedstock Introduction Scaling-up of microalgae cultivation system Open-pond system Photobioreactor system Photoautotrophic, heterotrophic and mixotrophic cultivation of microalgae Limiting factors for mass microalgae cultivation Light Temperature Oxygen and carbon dioxide pH Nutrients Culture period Microalgal lipids Lipid content of microalgae Lipid productivity of microalgae Fatty acid composition of microalgae Microalgal lipid biosynthesis Microalgal fatty acid biosynthesis Microalgal TAG assembly Microalgal LD packaging Microalgal biomass harvesting Centrifugation Flocculation Filtration Flotation Microalgae dewatering Microalgal oil extraction and transesterification Conclusions and future perspectives Acknowledgments References Index