Nanostructured Titanium Dioxide in Photocatalysis

Description

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has drawn considerable attention as an attractive inorganic raw material for various applications due to its inexpensiveness, nontoxic nature, stability, and excellent photocatalytic activity. Photocatalysis is one of the most promising route for sustainable chemistry of the 21st century. It can contribute to solving environmental, global energy, and chemical problems, as well as to the sustainable production of commodities in the near future. This book presents the fundamentals of photocatalysis in nanostructured TiO2 and describes the factors affecting the photocatalytic activity, design, and synthesis of various forms of nanostructured TiO2. It highlights the use of ion-doping and inert-atmosphere annealing to extend the light-absorption range of photocatalysts and reduce recombination between electrons and holes. It discusses numerous applications in the fields of energy and environment, such as water purification, gas sensing, storage and delivery, and energy generation. The book is an invaluable resource and useful guide for a broad readership in various fields of catalysis, materials science, environment, and energy. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Preface Part I: Introduction and Background Chapter 1: Introduction and Literature Review 1.1: Introduction 1.2: Literature Review 1.2.1: Crystal Structure of TiO2 1.2.1.1: Anatase 1.2.1.2: Rutile 1.2.1.3: Brookite 1.2.2: TiO2 Band Gap, Doping, and Modifying 1.2.2.1: Ion-implantation method 1.2.2.2: Sol–gel doping and other methods 1.2.2.3: Mixed titania phases: Heterojunction (heterostructure) 1.2.3: Kinetics of TiO2 Phase Transformation 1.2.3.1: Temperature 1.2.3.2: Calcination time 1.2.3.3: Heating rate 1.2.3.4: Atmospheres 1.2.3.5: Impurities, presence of foreign elements, or doping 1.2.3.6: Synthesis method 1.2.3.7: Particle/grain size 1.2.3.8: Surface area 1.2.4: Nanostructured TiO2 1.2.4.1: Zero-dimensional nanostructures 1.2.4.2: One-dimensional nanostructures 1.2.4.3: Two-dimensional nanostructures 1.2.4.4: Three-dimensional nanostructures 1.2.5: Synthesis Methods of Nanostructured TiO2 1.2.5.1: Sol–gel 1.2.5.2: Hydrothermal method 1.2.5.3: Template method 1.2.5.4: Chemical vapor deposition 1.2.5.5: Layer-by-layer method 1.2.5.6: Anodization method 1.2.5.7: Electrospinning method 1.2.6: Taguchi Method Part II: Methodologies Chapter 2: Material Synthesis and Methodologies 2.1: Synthesis of TiO2 Thin Films 2.2: Synthesis of Electrospun TiO2 Nanofibers 2.3: Synthesis of Anodized TiO2 Nanotubes 2.4: Synthesis of 1D TiO2 Nanostructures 2.4.1: Hydrothermal: Seeded-Growth Reaction 2.4.2: Templated Synthesis: Sol–Gel Deposition, Electrodeposition, Atomic Layer Deposition 2.4.3: Electrochemical Anodization 2.4.4: Ion Implantation 2.5: Physical Properties of Anodic TiO2 Nanotube Layers Annealed at Different Temperatures 2.5.1: Morphological Properties 2.5.2: Structural Properties 2.5.3: Optical Properties 2.5.4: Vibrational Properties 2.6: Modification and Functionalization of Anodic TiO2 Nanotube Layers 2.6.1: Doping 2.6.2: Reduction and Self-Doping “Black TiO2” 2.6.3: Surface Modification 2.6.4: Incorporation of Metals and Semiconductors 2.7: Synthesis of Doped TiO2 Nanostructures Chapter 3: Characterization Techniques 3.1: Scanning Electron Microscopy 3.2: High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy 3.3: X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 3.4: Electron Backscatter Diffraction 3.5: In Situ High-Temperature X-Ray and Synchrotron Radiation Diffraction 3.6: Analysis of Absolute Phase Compositions 3.7: Estimation of Activation Energies 3.8: Estimation of Crystallite Size and Strain Part III: Materials Characterization Chapter 4: In Situ Isothermal High-Temperature Diffraction Studies on the Crystallization, Phase Transformation, and Activation Energies in Anodized Titania Nanotubes 4.1: Introduction 4.2: Results and Discussion 4.2.1: Microstructural Imaging 4.2.2: Crystallization Kinetics 4.2.3: Activation Energies 4.3: Conclusion Chapter 5: Effect of Calcination on Band Gap for Electrospun Titania Nanofibers Heated in Air–Argon Mixtures 5.1: Introduction 5.2: Results and Discussion 5.2.1: Microstructure Imaging 5.2.2: Influence of Calcining Atmosphere 5.2.3: Phase Compositions 5.2.4: UV–Visible Spectral Analysis 5.2.5: Influence of Calcining Atmosphere on Band-Gap Structure 5.3: Conclusion Chapter 6: Characterization and Optimization of Electrospun TiO2/PVP Nanofibers Using Taguchi Design of Experiment Method 6.1: Introduction 6.2: Theory and Fundamentals 6.2.1: Taguchi DoE 6.2.2: Analysis of Variance 6.2.3: Total Variation (ST) 6.2.4: Total Variance of Each Factor (Si) 6.2.5: Percentage Contribution (%) 6.2.6: Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N) of Electrospun TiO2 Nanofiber Diameter 6.3: Results and Discussion 6.3.1: Nanofiber Morphology and Diameter 6.3.2: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 6.3.3: Optimum Combination of Factors 6.3.4: Confirmation Experiment to Optimum Conditions 6.4: Conclusion Chapter 7: Effect of Pressure on TiO2 Crystallization Kinetics Using In Situ Sealed Capillary High-Temperature Synchrotron Radiation Diffraction 7.1: Introduction 7.2: Results and Discussion 7.2.1: Microstructural Imaging 7.2.2: SRD Patterns for In Situ Heating of Material Contained in Sealed Capillary 7.2.3: Use of Ex Situ XRD at Atmospheric Pressure to Determine the Influence of Capillary Pressure in SRD Experiment 7.2.4: Crystallization Kinetics Modelling 7.3: Conclusion Chapter 8: Characterization of Chemical-Bath-Deposited TiO2 Thin Films 8.1: Introduction 8.2: Results and Discussion 8.2.1: XRD Analysis 8.2.2: Microstructure Analysis 8.2.3: Electrical Resistivity 8.3: Conclusion Chapter 9: Influence of Electrolyte and Temperature on Anodic Nanotubes 9.1: Introduction 9.2: Results and Discussion 9.2.1: Influence of Electrolyte Composition on TiO2 Nanotubes Formation 9.2.2: Temperature Dependence on Anodic Synthesis of TiO2 Nanotubes 9.2.3: Optical Properties of Anodic TiO2 Nanotubes 9.3: Conclusion Part IV: Materials Properties and Applications Chapter 10: Phase Transformations and Crystallization Kinetics of Electrospun TiO2 Nanofibers in Air and Argon Atmospheres 10.1: Introduction 10.2: Results and Discussion 10.2.1: Microstructures of Electrospun TiO2 Nanofibers 10.2.2: Effect of Environmental Atmosphere on Phase Transitions during Thermal Annealing 10.3: Conclusion Chapter 11: Effect of Vanadium-Ion Implantation on the Crystallization Kinetics and Phase Transformation of Electrospun TiO2 Nanofibers 11.1: Introduction 11.2: Results and Discussion 11.2.1: Microstructures of Electrospun TiO2 Nanofibers 11.2.2: HRTEM Imaging of Calcined TiO2 Nanofibers 11.2.3: X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 11.2.4: Effect of Ion Implantation on Phase Transitions 11.2.5: Crystallization Kinetics Modelling 11.2.6: Microstructure Development 11.3: Conclusion Chapter 12: A Comparative Study on Crystallization Behavior, Phase Stability, and Binding Energy in Pure and Cr-Doped TiO2 Nanotubes 12.1: Introduction 12.2: Results and Discussion 12.2.1: Crystallization Behavior 12.2.2: Microstructures and Formation Mechanisms of Nanostructured TiO2 12.2.3: Composition Depth Profiles and Binding Energies 12.3: Conclusion Chapter 13: Effect of Indium-Ion Implantation on Crystallization Kinetics and Phase Transformation of Anodized Titania Nanotubes 13.1: Introduction 13.2: Results and Discussion 13.2.1: Microstructural Imaging 13.2.2: Crystallization Behavior 13.2.3: Influence of In-Ion Implantation on Lattice Parameters 13.3: Conclusion Chapter 14: Ni Nanowires Grown in Anodic TiO2 Nanotube Arrays as Diluted Magnetic Semiconductor Nanocomposites 14.1: Introduction 14.2: Results and Discussion 14.3: Conclusion Chapter 15: Applications of TiO2 Nanostructures 15.1: Photocatalytic Applications 15.1.1: Antifogging and Self-Cleaning 15.1.2: Photocatalysts for Water Treatment and Air Purification 15.1.3: TiO2 Photobioreactor 15.2: Photovoltaic Applications 15.2.1: Lithium Batteries 15.2.2: Photoelectrochemical Cells 15.2.3: Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 15.3: Sensing Applications 15.4: Coatings 15.5: Drug Delivery and Bioapplications Part V: Conclusions Chapter 16: Summary and Conclusions 16.1: Summary 16.2: Conclusions Index