Biorefineries: An Introduction

Description

Biorefineries compiles the basic science and technologies used to convert terrestrial and aquatic biomass into essential molecular compounds and polymeric materials. The book provides in depth insights into this fairly recent concept of industrial chemistry that aims to achieve optimal economic profits while minimizing the environmental impact. Chapters written by renowned experts cover, amongst others, the application of catalysis, downstream processing, biomass sourced olefins, lignin biorefinery techniques and biogas. The authors thoroughly examine and explain the value chain for biomass conversion into platform molecules and their transformation into final products. A comprehensive thematic overview on the topic giving beginners access to fundamental concepts is presented. Supplemented by numerous full color figures and tables, the contents impart knowledge about the involved techniques. Advanced students and experts in the field will find the summary of state-of-the-art research and current literature of valuable interest. Explores the enormous potential of biomass conversion as a future source for fuels and chemicals Focuses on both general scientific background and current innovations in the field of biorefinery Targets students and researchers in Chemistry, Chemical Engineering, Biotechnology, and Materials Science About the Editors Prof. Michele Aresta, Chair of the Scientific Committee of CIRCC in Italy and holds the IMM Chair at the Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering at NUS, Singapore. He is author of over 200 papers and Author or Editor of nine books. Prof. Angela Dibenedetto, Associate Professor at the Department of Chemistry of the University of Bari (Italy) focused on carbon dioxide utilization by applying biorefinery concepts; and Director of the Interuniversity Consortium on Chemical Reactivity and Catalysis-CIRCC. Prof. Franck Dumeignil, Deputy Director of the CNRS joint Unit of Catalysis and Chemistry of Solid (UCCS) of Lille University (France); project coordinator of several projects on chemistry, including the EuroBioRef Project for designing next generation biorefineries. The use of biomass as a resource for fuels and chemicals is a very important topic in chemical research and chemical industry. The field of biorefineries combines cutting-edge research with innovative industrial goals. Preface Contributing authors Abbreviations Introduction to Biorefinery 1 Catalysis, growth, and society 2 Terrestrial biomass production 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Land availability 2.1.2 The crops 2.1.2.1 The oil crops 2.1.2.2 The lignocellulosic crops 2.2 Land suitability 2.2.1 Oil crops 2.2.1.1 Data sets 2.2.1.2 Determination of selection criteria 2.2.2 Lignocellulosic crops 2.3 Crop setting up 2.3.1 Oil crops 2.3.1.1 Soil preparation 2.3.1.2 Sowing 2.3.1.3 Irrigation 2.3.1.4 Fertilization 2.3.1.5 Weeding 2.3.1.6 Crop rotations 2.3.2 Lignocellulosic crops 2.3.2.1 Soil type requirement 2.3.2.2 Soil preparation 2.3.2.3 Planting 2.3.2.4 Irrigation 2.3.2.5 Fertilization 2.3.2.6 Weeding 2.4 Yields 2.4.1 Oil crops 2.4.1.1 Experimental design 2.4.1.2 Results 2.4.2 Lignocellulosics 2.4.2.1 Giant reed 2.5 Crop harvesting 2.5.1 Oil crops 2.5.1.1 Castor 2.5.1.2 Crambe 2.5.1.3 Safflower 2.5.2 Giant reed 2.6 Fuel characterization Bibliography 3 Production and uses of aquatic biomass 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Classification of aquatic biomass 3.2.1 Macroalgae 3.2.2 Microalgae 3.2.3 Plants 3.3 Cultivation of aquatic biomass 3.3.1 Macroalgae 3.3.2 Microalgae 3.4 Harvesting of aquatic biomass 3.4.1 Macroalgae 3.4.2 Microalgae 3.5 Composition of aquatic biomass 3.5.1 Bio-oil content of aquatic biomass 3.5.2 The quality of bio-oil 3.6 Technologies for algal oil and chemicals extraction 3.6.1 Fractionation of algal biomass 3.6.2 Extraction using chemico-physical methods 3.6.3 Conventional solvent extraction 3.6.4 Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) 3.6.5 Biological extraction 3.7 Conclusions Bibliography 4 Introduction to bioconversion and downstream processing: principles and process examples 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Principles of bioconversion process 4.3 Examples of bioconversion processes 4.3.1 Microbial production of 1,3-propanediol from glycerol 4.3.2 Bioproduction of n-butanol 4.4 Downstream processing 4.4.1 General scheme of downstream processing of fermentation broth 4.4.2 Downstream processing methods for 1,3-PDO and n-butanol 4.4.2.1 Evaporation and distillation 4.4.2.2 Gas stripping 4.4.2.3 Extraction methods 4.4.2.4 Pervaporation/Membrane separation 4.4.2.5 Adsorption and Chromatography 4.5 Concluding remarks Bibliography 5 Microbial strain selection and development for the production of second-generation bioethanol 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Enzymatic hydrolysis 5.2.1 Identification and development of biocatalysts for cellulose and hemicellulose hydrolysis 5.3 Fermentation inhibitors in lignocellulosic hydrolyzate 5.3.1 Weak acids 5.3.2 Furan derivatives: furfural and HMF 5.3.3 Phenolic compounds 5.3.4 Other inhibitors 5.3.5 Detoxification 5.3.5.1 Physical and chemical detoxification methods 5.3.5.2 Biological detoxification methods 5.3.6 Development of biocatalysts with enhanced resistance to fermentation inhibitors 5.4 Fermentation 5.4.1 Separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) 5.4.2 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) 5.4.3 Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF) 5.4.4 Consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) 5.4.5 High-gravity fermentation 5.5 Microbial biocatalysts 5.5.1 Escherichia coli 5.5.2 Zymomonas mobilis 5.5.3 Other bacteria 5.5.4 Saccharomyces cerevisiae 5.5.4.1 Expression of the fungal xylose utilization pathway 5.5.4.2 Expression of the bacterial xylose utilization pathway 5.5.4.3 Expression of the arabinose utilization pathway 5.5.5 Other yeasts 5.6 Strain development for CBP Bibliography 6 Biomass-derived molecules conversion to chemicals using heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysis 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Lignocellulosic biomass 6.2.1 Natural polymers processing 6.2.1.1 Glucidic polymers 6.2.1.2 Lignin 6.2.2 C1–C6 molecules 6.2.2.1 C1 starting materials: biogas and syngas 6.2.2.2 C2 molecule – ethanol 6.2.2.3 C3 molecules – glycerol and lactic acid 6.2.2.4 C4 molecules – succinic acid, 1,4-butanediol, ?-butyrolactone, butanol, iso-butanol, and olefins 6.2.2.5 C5 molecules – xylose, furfural, levulinic acid, and isoprene 6.2.2.6 C6 molecules – 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid, and sorbitol 6.3 Oleaginous biomass 6.3.1 Separation and primary products 6.3.1.1 Triglycerides 6.3.1.2 Fatty acids and esters 6.4 Conclusion Bibliography 7 Bio-sourced polyolefins 7.1 Introduction: why renewable polymers? 7.2 Bioderived conventional polyolefins: the drop-in synthesis of olefins 7.3 New polyolefins from bioderived monomers 7.4 Outlook and perspective Bibliography 8 Conversion of lignocellulosic biomass-derived intermediates to hydrocarbon fuels 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Upgrading of bio-oil from biomass pyrolysis 8.2.1 Upgrading of bio-oil to hydrocarbons by hydrodeoxygenation 8.2.2 Upgrading of bio-oil via C-C coupling reactions 8.2.3 Upgrading of bio-oil to hydrocarbons by fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) 8.3 Sugars to hydrocarbon fuels 8.4 Upgrading of butanol to fuels 8.5 Challenges – outlook Bibliography 9 Use of bio-sourced syngas 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Uses of syngas 9.2.1 Syngas as a fuel 9.2.2 Syngas as a chemical feedstock 9.2.2.1 Hydrogen production and uses 9.2.2.2 Ammonia production and uses 9.2.2.3 Urea production and use 9.2.2.4 Methanol production and uses 9.2.2.5 Oxo chemicals production and uses 9.2.3 Transportation fuels from syngas: the Fischer-Tropsch process 9.2.3.1 Fischer-Tropsch to fuels: biomass-to-liquids processes 9.2.3.2 Fischer-Tropsch to olefins 9.2.3.3 Feeding Fischer-Tropsch reactions with CO2 9.3 Syngas fermentation 9.4 Perspectives Bibliography 10 Oil chemistry: chemicals, polymers, and fuels 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Industrial applications of oil chemistry 10.3 EuroBioRef case studies 10.3.1 General description of the value chains 10.3.2 Oil production 10.3.3 Competition analysis 10.3.4 Technology analysis 10.3.4.1 IPscore analysis 10.3.4.2 Risk and SWOT analysis 10.3.4.3 Life cycle assessment (LCA) 10.3.4.4 Technology Readiness Level (TRL) assessment – actual demonstration status 10.3.5 Costs analysis 10.3.5.1 Capital expenditure (CAPEX) evaluation 10.3.5.2 Production costs evaluation 10.3.5.3 Job creation 10.3.5.4 Business model 10.3.5.5 Co-location in existing assets 10.4 Conclusions Bibliography 11 Lignin biorefinery: structure, pretreatment and use 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Origin and characteristics of lignin 11.2.1 Lignin occurrence and location 11.2.2 Lignin structure 11.3 Potential sources of biorefinery lignin 11.3.1 Lignin pretreatment 11.3.2 Kraft lignin process 11.3.3 The sulfite pulping process 11.3.4 Organosolv lignin 11.3.5 Pyrolysis process 11.3.6 Steam explosion lignin 11.3.7 Other processes 11.4 The use of lignin in current and future biorefinery schemes 11.4.1 Power – green fuels – syngas 11.4.2 Macromolecules 11.4.3 Aromatics and chemicals 11.4.4 Applications in nanomaterials 11.4.4.1 Capsules 11.4.4.2 Nanoparticles 11.4.4.3 Microporous and nanoporous materials 11.5 Conclusions and perspectives Bibliography 12 Utilization of existing assets 12.1 Introduction 12.1.1 Why utilizing existing plants to implement bio-based technology? 12.1.2 Kinds of integration scenarios 12.2 Case study 1: maleic anhydride production in a phthalic anhydride plant 12.2.1 General 12.2.2 Technological aspects of the retrofit 12.2.3 Economic evaluation 12.2.4 Demonstration status 12.2.5 Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats analysis 12.2.6 Value creation 12.2.7 Concluding remarks 12.3 Case study 2: 1,1-dibutoxyethane production added to an n-butanol plant in Europe 12.3.1 General 12.3.2 Technological aspects 12.3.3 Demonstration status 12.3.4 Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats analysis 12.3.5 Value creation 12.3.6 Concluding remarks 12.4 Perspective view Bibliography 13 Biogas from wet biomass: basic science and applications 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 The “aerobic” and “anaerobic” processes for wet WB 13.2 Structure of raw materials used for biogas production 13.2.1 Cellulose 13.2.2 Hemicellulose 13.2.3 Lignin 13.2.4 Pectin 13.2.5 Starch 13.2.6 Lipids 13.2.7 Proteins 13.3 The phases of biogas production 13.3.1 Anaerobic digestion: a nature-based biotechnology 13.3.2 Hydrolytic bacteria and acidogenesis 13.3.2.1 Transitional bacteria 13.3.2.2 Acetogenesis 13.3.2.3 Bacterial flora composition 13.4 Role of hydrogenases 13.4.1 [FeFe]H2-ase 13.4.2 [FeS]H2-ase 13.4.3 [NiFe]H2-ase and [Fe-Ni-Se]-ase 13.4.4 Molybdenum-iron-containing N2-ase 13.5 Methanogenic bacteria 13.5.1 Methanogenesis 13.5.2 The laboratory equipment for biogas production and system investigation 13.6 Industrial reactors 13.6.1 Types of reactors and configuration of biogas plants 13.6.1.1 Solid content 13.6.1.2 Temperature 13.6.1.3 Liquid and solid retention time 13.6.1.4 Continuity of the process 13.6.2 Biogas from wastewaters Bibliography Index