Atmospheric Thermodynamics

Description

Atmospheric Thermodynamics provides a comprehensive treatment of a subject that can often be intimidating. The text analyses real-life problems and applications of the subject, alongside of guiding the reader through the fundamental basics and covering the first and second laws and the ideal gas law, followed by an emphasis on moist processes in Earth's atmosphere. Water in all its phases is a critical component of weather and the Earth's climate system. With user-friendly chapters that include energy conservation and water and its transformations, the authors write with a willingness to expose assumptions and approximations usually absent in other textbooks. History is woven into the text to provide a context for the time evolution of thermodynamics and its place in atmospheric science and demonstrating how physical reasoning leads to correct explanations of everyday phenomena. Many of the experiments described were done using inexpensive instruments to take advantage of the earth's atmosphere as a freely accessible thermodynamics library. This second edition provides updated treatments of atmospheric measurements and substantially expanded sections that include atmospheric applications of the first and second laws and energy exchange between humans and their atmospheric environment. With 400+ thought provoking problems and 350 references with annotated notes and further reading suggestions, this second edition provides a basic understanding of the fundamentals of this subject while still being a comprehensive reference guide for those working in the field of atmospheric and environmental sciences. cover titlepage copyright dedication Preface to Second Edition Acknowledgments Preface to the First Edition Acknowledgments Contents 1 Introduction: Conservation of Energy 1.1 Thermodynamics: A Science of Measurable Quantities 1.2 Conservation of Energy in Mechanics 1.3 Conservation of Energy: A System of Point Molecules 1.4 A Few Examples of Energy Conservation *1.5 Kinetic Energy Exchanges in Molecular Interactions (Collisions) 1.6 Working and Heating An Example of Working 1.7 Some Necessary Thermodynamic Concepts and Jargon 1.8 Thermodynamic Internal Energy and the First Law Irreverent Thoughts about Heat How Does One Measure ``Amount of Heat?'' Description and Explanation A Few Parting Shots Annotated References and Suggestions for Further Reading Problems 2 Ideal Gas Law: Pressure and Absolute Temperature 2.1 Gas Pressure and Absolute Temperature: What Are They and What Are They Not? Ideal Gas Law A Perspective on Units Pressure Measurement: Barometer and Manometer Temperature Scales and Thermometers Atmospheric Temperature Measurements Interpretations, Operations, and Explanations The Nature of Statistical Laws A Brief History of the Gas Law 2.2 Pressure Decrease with Height: Continuum Interpretation Pressure–Height Relationships: Thickness 2.3 Pressure Decrease with Height: Molecular Interpretation 2.4 The Maxwell–Boltzmann Distribution of Molecular Speeds Why Don't Air Molecules Escape to Space? 2.5 Intermolecular Separation, Mean Free Path, and Intermolecular Collision Rate Mean Free Path Intermolecular Collision Rate Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium 2.6 Is the Pressure Gradient in a Gas a Fundamental Force of Nature? 2.7 Surface Pressure and the Weight of the Atmosphere Flat Earthers Take Note! Why Aren't We Crushed by Airplanes Flying Overhead? 2.8 The Atmosphere Is a Mixture of Gases: Dalton's Law Mean Molecular Weight Annotated References and Suggestions for Further Reading Problems 3 Specific Heats and Enthalpy: Adiabatic Processes 3.1 A Critique of the Mathematics of Thermodynamics ``Those Accursed Differentials'' Differentials and Infinitesimals Are Differentials Necessary in Thermodynamics? Pure and Impure Thermodynamics: The Indicator Diagram Impossible Processes 3.2 Specific Heats and Enthalpy Is the Heat Capacity of Liquid Water Extraordinarily High? An Incompressibility Paradox: The Perils of Idealization Enthalpy of the (Hydrostatic) Atmosphere 3.3 Adiabatic Processes: Poisson's Relations 3.4 (Dry) Adiabatic Processes in the Atmosphere Do Pistons and Cylinders Inhabit the Atmosphere? 3.5 Stability and Buoyancy Buoyancy Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate and Stability Parcel Oscillations 3.6 Specific Heats of Gases The Ratio of Working to Heating at Constant Pressure 3.7 Heat Capacities of Mixtures of Gases Water Vapor Demystified Isobaric, Adiabatic Mixing of Moist Parcels 3.8 Atmospheric Applications of the First Law 3.9 Chemical Reactions and Temperature Changes 3.10 Residence Time of the Internal Translational Kinetic Energy of Earth's Atmosphere Annotated References and Suggestions for Further Reading Problems 4 Entropy 4.1 Entropy of an Ideal Gas Entropy Change in a Free Expansion Entropy Changes upon Heating and Cooling The Second Law and Stability Entropy of Mixtures: Entropy of Mixing and the ``Gibbs Paradox'' Entropy Changes upon Mixing Two Gases with Different Temperatures and Pressures An Entropic Derivation of Joule's Law Entropy and Disorder: A Persistent Swindle Microscopic Interpretation of Entropy 4.2 Entropy Changes of Liquids and Isotropic Solids 4.3 Atmospheric Applications of the Second Law Maximum Entropy: Arbitrary Temperature Distribution in a Solid Slab Entropy Maximization in the Atmosphere Thermodynamic Efficiency: The Carnot Cycle Refrigerators and Coefficient of Performance Thermodynamic Efficiencies of Real Engines Lapse Rate in Water Annotated References and Suggestions for Further Reading Problems 5 Water and Its Transformations 5.1 Evaporation and Condensation of Water Vapor 5.2 Measures of Water Vapor in Air Dew, Frost, Defrosters, Dehumidifiers, and Swamp Coolers 5.3 The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation Other Enthalpy Differences Mantras and Misconceptions about Phase Transitions Entropy and Enthalpy Differences in Phase Changes Temperature Dependence of Enthalpy of Vaporization Temperature Dependence of Saturation Vapor Pressure: A More Accurate Equation Difference between the Saturation Vapor Pressure above Ice and above Subcooled Water at the Same Temperature Dew Point Depression and Human Comfort in Hot, Humid Weather Lapse Rate of the Boiling Point Evaporative Cooling and Condensational Warming 5.4 van der Waals Equation of State Must a Liquid Boil in Order to Evaporate? Can a Solid Boil Before It Melts? Departures from Ideality According to the van der Waals Equation * The Maxwell Construction and Saturation Vapor Pressure An Overview of the Many Successes of the van der Waals Equation 5.5 Phase Diagrams: Liquid–Vapor, Liquid–Vapor–Solid, Triple Point 5.6 Free Energy 5.7 Effect of Air Pressure on Saturation Vapor Pressure 5.8 Lowering of Vapor Pressure by Dissolution 5.9 Air in Water: Henry's Law Change in Saturation Vapor Pressure with Total Pressure 5.10 Size Dependence of Vapor Pressure: Water Droplets, Solution Droplets, and Bubbles Droplet and Bubble Vapor Pressure: Physical Interpretation Mechanical Equilibrium of Balloons, Corneas, Droplets, Bubbles: The Young–Laplace Equation and the Road to Surface Tension Equilibrium Vapor Pressure of Droplets and Bubbles: A Physical Interpretation The Kelvin Equation and the Difficult Birth of Cloud Droplets Vapor Pressure of Solution Droplets Boiling Demystified and More Heresy Annotated References and Suggestions for Further Reading Problems 6 Moist Air and Clouds 6.1 Precipitable Water in the Atmosphere 6.2 Lapse Rate of the Dew Point: Level of Cloud Formation 6.3 Density of Moist Air: Virtual Temperature 6.4 Wet-Bulb Temperature Is the Temperature of a Wet Bulb the Wet-Bulb Temperature? Humidity Measurements 6.5 Lapse Rate for Isentropic Ascent of a Saturated Parcel Equivalent Potential Temperature and Wet-Bulb Potential Temperature An Overview of Temperatures, Real and Fictitious 6.6 Thermodynamic Diagrams A Smattering of History Skew-T–log p Diagram Tephigram Other Diagrams 6.7 Stability and Cloud Formation Entrainment 6.8 Mixing Clouds 6.9 Cloud Formation on Ascent and Descent Annotated References and Suggestions for Further Reading Problems 7 Energy, Momentum, and Mass Transfer 7.1 Energy Transfer by Thermal Conduction Fourier Thermal Conduction Law Thermal Resistance Convective Transfer of Energy Conductivity of Gases: A Few Fallacies Dispelled The Effective Conductivity of Porous Materials The Skin Diver's Fallacy Newton's Law of Cooling: A Study in Historical Error Propagation Freezing of Lakes Radiative Energy Transfer Radiation and Convection Combined: Dew and Frost Formation To Insulate or Not to Insulate? Radiation in Porous Media Newton's Law of Cooling According to Newton *Thermometers and Soils as Low-pass Filters Chilliness at High Altitudes: Forced Convection Cooling in Air and Water: Free Convection 7.2 Momentum Transfer: Viscosity 7.3 Mass Transfer: Diffusion Diffusion Coefficient The Nonexistence of Still Air Growth of Cloud Droplets Annotated References and Suggestions for Further Reading Problems Selected Physical Constants Saturation Vapor Pressure over Water Reference Bibliography Index