Biomarkers of Toxic Metals

Description

The current exposure of human populations to toxic metals makes the prevention and control of such exposures crucial. Biomarkers are undoubtably recognized as vital tools to achieve these goals. This book is for researchers, toxicologists, physicians, pharmacologists and those working in governmental regulatory agencies and other public health fields. The first part of this book covers general aspects of biomarkers of toxic metals, while parts 2 and 3 cover biomarkers of xenobiotic metals and essential metals with potential for toxicity, respectively. In part 4, novel approaches to metal biomarkers are focused. Cover Title Page Copyright Page Preface Table of Contents Part I: General Considerations 1. Metals: Pollution and Health Impacts Metals as Natural Resources Chemical nature of metals Metals in Nature and their uses by man Environmental Pollution by Metals Air Soil Sediments Water Food chains Bioaccumulation and biomagnification Aquatic and terrestrial food chains Human Exposure to Metals Sources Routes Toxicity of Metals Final Remarks References 2. Biomarkers, an Overview The Concept of Biomarker Defining biomarkers Contexts of biomarkers Monitorization of Environment and Human Health Environmental monitoring Biological monitoring Categories of Biomarkers Biomarkers of exposure Biomarkers of susceptibility Inherited susceptibility Acquired susceptibility Biomarkers of effect Bioindicators Undetermined consequences Exogenous surrogates Other biomarkers Predictive, prognostic and safety biomarkers Surrogate markers Imaging and molecular biomarkers Biomarkers’ Strengths’ and Weakness Qualities Sources of errors and limitations Final Remarks References 3. Application Fields of Metal Biomarkers Risk Assessment of Metal Contamination Substitute by biomarkers in ecological risk assessment Sentinel organisms Molecular biomarkers Oxidative stress Antioxidant defences Metallothioneins Enzymes Genotoxicity and epigenetic changes Challenges in ecological risk assessment Biomarkers in Human Health Risk Assessment Occupational risk assessment Biomarkers of exposure Biomarkers of susceptibility Biomarkers of effect Clinical and forensic assessments Metal levels Blood analysis Kidney function tests Imaging Risk Assessment of Food and Consumer Products Food Consumer products Final Remarks References Part II: Biomarkers of Xenobiotic Metals 4. Aluminium Sources of Exposure Air Workplace Soil Water Food Consumer products Additional sources Toxicity Acute toxicity Chronic toxicity Neurodegenerative diseases Cancer Other effects Biomarkers Biomarkers of exposure Aluminium levels in blood and urine Aluminium levels in other matrices Biomarkers of susceptibility Biomarkers of effects Oxidative stress Other endpoints Final Remarks References 5. Arsenic Sources of Exposure Air Workplace Water Food Consumer products Toxicity Acute toxicity Chronic toxicity Biomarkers Biomarkers of exposure Arsenic levels Blood Urine Hair and nails Other biomarkers Biomarkers of susceptibility Enzymes of xenobiotic metabolism DNA repair enzymes Carotene Biomarkers of effect Molecular biomarkers Cytogenetic biomarkers Altered structures or functions of target organs Final Remarks References 6. Cadmium Sources of Exposure Air Workplace Soils Water Food Consumer products Toxicity Acute toxicity Chronic toxicity Effects in the kidneys Effects in the bones Effects in the lungs Effects in the nervous system Carcinogenicity Other effects Biomarkers Biomarkers of exposure Cadmium levels in blood Cadmium levels in urine Cadmium levels in hair and nails Cadmium levels in saliva Biomarkers of susceptibility Biomarkers of effect Toxic actions of Cadmium in the kidneys Metallothioneins Low molecular weight proteins Kidney enzymes Kidney injury molecule Early Cadmium effects Final Remarks References 7. Chromium Sources of Exposure Air Workplace Soil Water Food Consumer products Toxicity Acute toxicity Chronic toxicity Biomarkers Biomarkers of exposure Chromium levels in blood Chromium levels in urine Chromium levels in hair or nails Other biomarkers Biomarkers of susceptibility Genetic biomarkers Epigenetic biomarkers Biomarkers of effect Hexavalent chromium Haematological parameters and inflammation Renal parameters Genotoxicity Other parameters Trivalent chromium Final Remarks References 8. Lead Source of Exposure Air Workplace Soil Water Food Consumer products Toxicity Acute toxicity Chronic toxicity Biomarkers Biomarkers of exposure Lead levels in blood Lead levels in urine or faeces Lead levels in saliva Lead levels in hair or nails Lead levels in teeth or bones Biomarkers of susceptibility Genetic biomarkers δ-aminolaevulinic acid dehydra Glutathione-S-transferases Hemochromatosis Metallothioneins Vitamin D receptor Epigenetic biomarkers Biomarkers of effect Heme biosynthesis Enzymes Brain-derived neurotrophic factor Cortisol and lipids Final Remarks References 9. Mercury Sources of Exposure Air Workplace Soil Water Food Consumer products Toxicity Acute toxicity Mercury vapours Mercury salts Organic mercury Chronic toxicity Inorganic mercury Organic mercury Biomarkers Biomarkers of exposure Mercury levels in blood Mercury levels in urine or faeces Mercury levels in hair or nails Mercury levels in placental cord blood or human milk Micro RNAs Biomarkers of susceptibility Glutathione Metallothioneins Selenoproteins ATP-binding cassette transporter Biomarkers of effect Heme synthesis Oxidative stress Selenium and selenoproteins Final Remarks References Part III: Biomarkers of Essential Metals with Potential for Toxicity 10. Copper Sources of Exposure Air Workplace Soil Water Food Essentiality and Toxicity Deficiency Acute toxicity Chronic toxicity Biomarkers Biomarkers of copper status Copper levels Blood and urine Hair and nails Cuproenzymes Ceruloplasmin Superoxide dismutases Diamine oxidase Peptidylglycine a-amidating monooxygenase Lysyl oxidase Cytochrome c oxidase Other biomarkers of copper status Biomarkers of susceptibility Biomarkers of effect Final Remarks References 11. Iron Sources of Exposure Air and workplace Soil and water Food Consumer products Health conditions Essentiality and Toxicity Deficiency Acute toxicity Chronic toxicity Biomarkers Biomarkers of iron status Iron levels in blood and urine Iron metabolism Ferritin Transferrin, transferrin receptors and saturation Serum iron binding capacity Hormones Other biomarkers of iron status Biomarkers of susceptibility Biomarkers of effect Final Remarks References 12. Magnesium Sources of Exposure Air Workplace Soil Water Food Medicines Essentiality and Toxicity Deficiency Toxicity Biomarkers Biomarkers of magnesium status Magnesium levels in blood Whole blood Plasma Serum Blood cells Ionized Magnesium Magnesium levels in urine and faeces Magnesium levels in hair and nails Magnesium levels in muscle and bones Biomarkers of susceptibility Biomarkers of effect Final Remarks References 13. Manganese Sources of Exposure Air Workplace Soil Water Food Drug abuse Essentiality and Toxicity Deficiency Toxicity Biomarkers Biomarkers of exposure Manganese levels Blood Urine Saliva Hair and nails Bones Other biomarkers Ratio Mn/Fe Prolactin Magnetic Resonance Imaging Biomarkers of susceptibility Genetic biomarkers CYP2D6 SLC30A10 Parkin/PARK2 ATP13A2 Negative results Epigenetic biomarkers Biomarkers of effect Manganoproteins Metallothioneins Divalent metal transporter 1 Serum Mn citrate Imaging techniques Final Remarks References 14. Zinc Sources of Exposure Air Workplace Soil Water Food Consumer products Essentiality and Toxicity Deficiency Acute toxicity Chronic toxicity Biomarkers Biomarkers of exposure Zinc levels Blood Urine and faeces Hair and nails Molecular biomarkers Enzymes Metallothioneins and Zinc transporters Fatty acid metabolism Biomarkers of susceptibility Acrodermatitis enteropathica Breast milk Mitochondrial citrate transporter Heat shock proteins Biomarkers of effect Final Remarks References Part IV: Novel Trends in Metals Biomarkers 15. Biomarkers of Metal Mixtures Exposure to Metal Mixtures Air and workplace Soil and water Food Risk assessment of metal mixtures Metal mixtures interactions Interactions outside the organism Interactions within the organism Toxicokinetic interactions Absorption Metabolism Excretion Toxicodynamic interactions Neurotoxicity Carcinogenicity Other effects Biomarkers Multi-media biomarkers Biomarkers of susceptibility Metallothioneins Enzymes Biomarkers of effect Cell membranes damage DNA and RNA damage Antioxidant defence Heme synthesis Final Remarks References 16. Multibiomarker Approaches Need and Advantages of Multibiomarker Approaches Multivariate Statistical Methods “Omics” Technologies Exposome Genomics Transcriptomics Epigenomics Proteomics Metabolomics Lipidomics Adductomics Metallomics Systems biology Final Remarks References Index