The Law of Renewable Energy

Description

DELETE Preface List of abbreviations Table of statutes Table of statutory instruments Table of cases Chapter 1: Introduction and Climate Change Law Introduction What is renewable energy? 100% renewables Carbon neutral Climate change Paris agreement Climate Change Act 2008 Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 Environment (Wales) Act 2016 Renewables statistics UK passes net zero emissions law Net zero UK’s greenhouse gas emissions Legal status of the net zero target UK Budget 2020 – growing a greener economy Is the 2050 target achievable? Which business sectors will be affected the most? Carbon budgets How can the UK reach its target? Costs and benefits Which other countries have a net zero target? Carbon capture and storage Meeting the 2050 Pathways Global trends Chapter 2: Incentives to Invest in Renewable Energy Introduction Payments for electricity generation Application of FIT Climate Change Act 2008 Setting emissions reduction targets in statute and carbon budgeting Adaptation Policy measures which reduce emissions FIT scheme Impact of the FIT scheme Legal challenge following the closure of the FIT scheme Smart Export Guarantee SEG applies to SEG tariffs Contracts for Difference Allocation rounds Supplier Obligation and Operational Costs Levy CfD settlement services Renewables Obligation Renewable Obligation Certificates Annual obligation levels Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO) Funding EU Emissions Trading System ‘Cap and trade’ principle Sectors and gases covered Key features of Phase 3 (2013–2020) Key features of Phase 4 (2021–2030) Impact of the EU ETS on renewable energy European Union 2020 – Energy Policy Review Chapter 3: Wind Power Introduction Wind power deployment Planning policy for on wind Local policy Recovered appeals for Secretary of State determination Community engagement in the planning process Separation distances Disadvantages of wind power Offshore Offshore consents and licensing Case law – liability for foundation adequacy Onshore Planning process for onshore wind turbines Section 106 agreements Business rate retention Goodwill payments A community fund Contribution to energy efficiency schemes Wider environmental and societal benefits Provision of cheaper electricity The Community Benefit Protocol Planning issues Some reasons for rejection Some reasons for acceptance Number of applications approved or rejected Types of wind turbine Horizontal axis Vertical axis Ducted wind turbines Wind turbines for domestic use Building-mounted wind turbines Stand-alone wind turbines Environmental impacts of wind turbines Noise limits Variability and related issues Microgeneration Certification Scheme Wind power in the UK Vattenfall’s offshore windfarm expansion blocked UK renewables (October to December 2019) International comparison for wind generation Chapter 4: Hydropower Introduction Hydropower deployment Hydroelectric schemes Storage scheme Run-of-river scheme Pumped storage Tidal and offshore hydropower Tidal stream generator Micro hydropower Archimedean screw Micro-hydroelectric power and the historic environment Advantages and disadvantages of hydropower schemes Advantages Disadvantages Planning permission for a small hydro scheme England Scotland Wales Northern Ireland Chapter 5: Solar Power Introduction Solar PV deployment Types of PV panel Solar panels – non-domestic use Siting of solar panels on non-domestic dwellings Stand-alone solar panel installations in the grounds of a non-domestic building Building Regulations Solar farms Advantages and disadvantages of solar farms Solar farms in the UK Planning permission refusals and appeals Historic buildings Consents National Trust and solar power Concentrated solar power Advantages and disadvantages of CSP CSP and the UK Types of CSP technology Solar panels – domestic use Solar equipment mounted on a house or block of flats or on a building within a curtilage Stand-alone solar equipment (panels not on a building but within the grounds of a house or a block of flats) Case law – solar panels have right to light Issues related to installing solar panels Lender requirements Environmental impacts of solar panels Production of a functioning solar panel Land use and ecological impacts Soil, water and air resources Recycling Energy payback time of solar panels World capacity for solar energy Related documents Building Regulations 2010 Chapter 6: History of Photovoltaics Introduction Large utility-scale photovoltaic systems Solar cars Multi-MW utility-scale PV power plants Solar cars Photovoltaic process PV generations Components of photovoltaic systems Photovoltaic cells Crystalline silicon Not classified as crystalline silicon Floating solar farms Co-benefits of floating photovoltaics Queen Elizabeth II reservoir FPV panels Hyde, Greater Manchester Yamakura Plant, Japan Yellow Tropus – submerged FPV solution Ocean Sun – flexible FPV solution Ciel & Terre – tracking-based FPV solution O’MEGA1, Rhone Valley, Southern France HelioRec – hydropower-connected solar PV systems Chapter 7: Geothermal Energy Introduction Types of geothermal energy Geothermal technology Direct geothermal energy Geothermal power plants Geothermal heat pumps Geothermal power – UK Solar (shallow geothermal) energy Aquifer-based scheme Hot rock schemes Geothermal resources in the UK Ground-source heat pumps Deep geothermal plants Who owns geothermal heat? Current regulatory approaches Deep geothermal Regulation of geothermal heat in the UK Deep geothermal energy regulation Conventional geothermal Pumping tests Subsequent applications from the same deep aquifer Planning Advice: Scotland Shettleston, Glasgow Lumphinnans, Fife Suggested areas of focus for planning authorities Opportunities within planning processes for planning authorities Technical information for deep geothermal Typical planning considerations in determining planning applications for deep geothermal Hot dry rock geothermal Operator’s role and liability Advantages and disadvantages of geothermal energy Advantages Disadvantages Geothermal power linked to earthquakes Geothermal energy by country Chapter 8: Biofuels and Bioenergy Introduction Renewable fuels Biomass Feedstocks Types of biofuel Crops grown for bioenergy in the UK Bioethanol Advanced or second-generation biofuels Renewable Transport Fuel Certificates Primary and secondary biofuels Primary biofuels Secondary biofuels Different types of liquid biofuels for transport Second-generation biofuels Gasification Guidance and regulation Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation (RTFO): guidance 2020 Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation RTFO: registered companies Environmental impact of biofuels Greenhouse gas emissions Waste-derived biodiesel – European case law Legal challenge on biomass in the Renewable Energy Directive Anaerobic digestion Types of AD process Options for AD systems Feedstocks Advantages of AD Disadvantages of AD AD firm fined £19k for odour pollution Leaks from biogas plants lead to five-figure fines Chapter 9: Energy Storage Introduction Benefits of energy storage Types of energy storage Batteries for supplementing power generation Electrochemical storage Chemical energy storage Mechanical storage High-temperature and thermal energy storage Electrical methods Storage and electric vehicles Battery Storage, Elverlingsen, Germany UK planning law changes could help mega-projects clear ‘significant hurdle’ Chapter 10: Integration into the Energy System Introduction New renewable energy generation Scaling up renewable energy generation whilst aligning targets and incentives with grid integration Establish renewable energy targets Grid integration study A pathway for meeting targets Create smart renewable energy incentives Using wind and solar to reliably meet electricity demand Distributed solar There are a number of challenges Interconnection standards and codes Interconnection procedures European energy integration plans What is energy integration? Benefits of energy integration European Green Deal Timeline Hydrogen European energy system integration Chapter 11: Environmental Impact of Renewable Energy Introduction Solar power Land use and ecological impacts Impacts on soil, water and air resources Other impacts Solar power tower Heavy metals Recycling solar panels Veolia and PV CYCLE Hydropower Large dams Tidal and wave energy Land use and hydroelectric power Wind power Assessing and mitigating environmental impacts Biomass Using biomass for energy has positive and negative effects Burning wood Burning municipal solid waste or wood waste Disposing of ash from waste-to-energy plants Collecting landfill gas or biogas Liquid biofuels: ethanol and biodiesel Geothermal energy Geothermal power plants have low emission levels Many geothermal features are national treasures Air emissions Energy storage Environmental impacts of electricity storage Pumped hydroelectric Compressed air Flywheels Batteries Chapter 12: Renewable Energy in Developing Countries Introduction Considerations for a region looking at VRE Hydropower Wind and solar Biofuels Prospects for VRE Systems integration Global energy transformation China India Afghanistan Albania Free and Open Indo-Pacific Strategies Connectivity 2025 Small Island Developing States Strategy on Connecting Europe and Asia IRENA/ADFD projects IEA Funding and projects Smart grid technology Advanced metering infrastructure Advanced electricity pricing Distribution automation Chapter 13: Emerging Technologies Introduction Artificial photosynthesis Light capture and moving the electrons to the reaction centres Splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen Reducing carbon dioxide Transforming carbon dioxide into liquefiable fuels Artificial leaf Direct air capture plant Hydrogen fuels Thermal processes Electrolytic processes Solar-driven processes Biological processes Algae fuels Fuel types Hydrogen-powered cars Hydrogen-powered fuel cell Hydrogen production facility explosion Exxon Mobil and Synthetic Genomics Solar energy Double-sided solar panels Organic photovoltaic (OPV) Solar skin Solar-powered roads Tourouvre-au-Perche, France Decarbonising railways Wearable solar Floating wind turbines Concepts of floating wind power WindFloat TetraSpar W2Power SeaTwirl Swing Around Twin Hull (SATH) Chapter 14: Trends in Policies Introduction Renewable Energy Directive (RED) National Energy and Climate Plans Recast Renewable Energy Directive (RED II) Renewable Energy Action Plans Sustainability criteria The UK’s draft integrated National Energy and Climate Plan Climate Change Act 2008 Request for advice on UK climate targets Clean Growth Strategy and Clean Growth Grand Challenge Second National Adaptation Programme and the third strategy for Adaptation Reporting Power Strategies and legislation in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales Five dimensions of energy security Energy security Energy efficiency Appendix: Cases Index