Nanomaterials for Clinical Applications: Case Studies in Nanomedicines (Micro and Nano Technologies)

Description

Nanomaterials in Clinical Medicine: Case Studies in Nanomedicines focuses on the nanomaterials that can be formulated as drug delivery vehicles, such as liposomes, micelles, nanoemulsions and nanogels. Their physicochemical, morphological, thermo-dynamical and nanotoxicological properties are analyzed with respect to the design and development of drug delivery nanosystems for the encapsulation of an active pharmaceutical ingredient and its controlled release. Each chapter covers basic properties, the nanosystem (e.g., liposomes), the added value in drug delivery and targeting, and future perspectives. Case studies and examples of how nanomaterials are being used in clinical medicine, including marketed liposomal medicines and medical utility and regimens are also included. Particular attention is given to new nanocarriers, such as elastic liposomes, lipid polymeric hybrid nanoparticles, organogel, nanofibers carbon nanomaterials, quantum dots and inorganic nanoparticles. This book is an important information source for those wanting to increase their understanding of what major nanomaterials are being used to create more effective drug delivery systems. WARNING!!! DUMMY ENTRY Nanomaterials for Clinical Applications Nanomaterials for Clinical Applications Copyright Contents List of contributors one Solid lipid nanoparticles in dermaceuticals 1.1 General introduction 1.2 Why solid lipid nanoparticles? 1.2.1 Formulation aspects 1.2.2 Physiological aspects 1.3 Evolution of lipidic nanoparticles from solid lipid nanoparticles to nanostructured lipid carriers 1.4 Cosmetic and topical applications of solid lipid nanoparticles 1.5 Skin penetration with solid lipid nanoparticles 1.6 Mechanism of drug penetration with solid lipid nanoparticles 1.7 Incorporation into semisolid vehicle 1.8 Case studies of successful topical delivery with lipidic nanoparticles 1.8.1 Delivery of antimicrobials 1.9 Delivery of agents for other skin diseases 1.9.1 Solid lipid nanoparticles for cosmetic applications 1.10 Conclusions References two Cyclodextrin-based drug delivery systems 2.1 Cyclodextrins—structure, physiochemical properties, and toxicological profile 2.2 Cyclodextrin inclusion complexes—formation, stability, and application in drug delivery 2.3 Cyclodextrin-based products in clinical practice 2.3.1 Cyclodextrins as multifunctional excipients in dosage form design 2.3.1.1 Cyclodextrins in parenteral formulations 2.3.1.2 Cyclodextrins in ocular formulations 2.3.1.3 Cyclodextrins in nasal formulations 2.3.1.4 Cyclodextrins in oral formulations 2.3.1.5 Cyclodextrins in oromucosal formulations 2.3.1.6 Cyclodextrins in dermal formulations 2.3.2 Cyclodextrin as novel therapeutically active pharmaceutical ingredients 2.3.2.1 Sugammadex 2.3.3 Treatment of Niemann–Pick disease, type C1 disease with HPβCD 2.3.3.1 Cyclodextrins in control of obesity and hyperlipidemia References three Lipid vesicles for (trans)dermal administration 3.1 (Trans)dermal drug-delivery systems 3.1.1 Human skin barrier to xenobiotics 3.2 Lipid vesicles for breaching the skin barrier 3.2.1 Conventional liposomes 3.2.2 Transfersomes 3.2.3 Ethanol-based lipid vesicles 3.2.3.1 Ethosomes 3.2.3.2 Transethosomes 3.2.3.3 Other lipid vesicles 3.3 Liposomal formulation in clinics 3.3.1 Conventional liposomes 3.3.2 Transfersomes 3.3.3 Ethosomes 3.4 Final remarks References four Stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for drug delivery 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Types of stimuli 4.2.1 pH-responsive nanosystems 4.2.2 Thermoresponsive nanosystems 4.3 Development of chimeric stimuli-responsive liposomes with incorporated stimuli-responsive polymers 4.3.1 pH-responsive liposomes 4.3.2 Thermoresponsive liposomes 4.4 Thermotropic behavior of stimuli-responsive liposomes 4.4.1 Thermal analysis on pH-responsive liposomes 4.4.2 Thermal analysis of thermoresponsive liposomes 4.5 Physicochemical properties of stimuli-responsive liposomes 4.5.1 Physicochemical characterization of pH-responsive liposomes 4.5.2 Physicochemical characterization of thermoresponsive liposomes 4.6 Development of stimuli-responsive lyotropic liquid crystalline nanosystems 4.6.1 Stimuli-responsive lyotropic liquid crystalline nanosystems using polycation of PDMAEMA 4.6.2 pH-responsive cubosomes by using pH-sensitive polymer 4.6.3 pH-responsive liquid crystalline nanosystems using pH-responsive molecules 4.6.4 Thermoresponsive lipid-based liquid crystalline nanosystems 4.7 Conclusion and future directions References five Biodegradable nanomaterials 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Natural polymers 5.2.1 Polysaccharides 5.2.1.1 Chitosan 5.2.1.2 Hyaluronic acid 5.2.1.3 Alginate 5.2.1.4 Starch 5.2.1.5 Cellulose and cellulose derivatives 5.2.2 Proteins 5.2.2.1 Collagen 5.2.2.2 Gelatin 5.2.2.3 Albumin 5.2.3 Biopolymers of bacterial origin 5.2.3.1 Polyhydroxyalcanoates 5.2.3.2 Poly(γ-glutamic acid) 5.3 Synthetic polymers 5.3.1 Aliphatic polyesters 5.3.1.1 Polyglycolic acid 5.3.1.2 Polylactic acid 5.3.1.3 Polylactic-co-glycolic acid 5.3.1.4 Poly-ε-caprolactone 5.3.2 Poly-(orthoesters) 5.3.3 Polyanhydrides 5.3.4 Poly(alkyl cyanoacrylates) 5.3.5 Synthetic poly(amino acids) 5.3.6 Inorganic biodegradable polymers 5.3.6.1 Polyphosphazenes 5.3.6.2 Polyphosphates 5.4 Polymeric nanoparticles 5.4.1 Introduction 5.4.2 Properties—advantages of polymeric nanoparticles 5.4.3 Polymeric nanoparticles preparation 5.4.3.1 Emulsion—solvent evaporation 5.4.3.2 Coacervation 5.4.3.3 Nanoprecipitation, coprecipitation, and dialysis 5.4.3.4 Ionic gelation 5.4.3.5 Spray drying 5.4.4 Drug release mechanisms 5.4.5 Targeting 5.4.5.1 Passive targeting 5.4.5.2 Active targeting 5.4.5.3 Tumor targeting 5.5 Clinical applications of biodegradable nanoparticles 5.5.1 Introduction 5.5.2 Regulatory aspects 5.5.3 Properties of biodegradable nanoparticles (BNPs) which impact clinical use 5.5.4 Approved and investigational drugs with biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles of natural or synthetic origin 5.5.4.1 Anticancer drugs 5.5.4.2 Nanoparticles for oral delivery 5.5.4.3 Future trends: nanoparticles for vaccines and gene therapy 5.6 Future perspectives Acknowledgments References Further reading six Modulating the immune response with liposomal delivery 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Principles of lipid-based nanoparticles 6.1.2 Principles of the immune system 6.2 Liposomal immune modulation with small-molecule therapeutics 6.2.1 Principles of liposomal pharmacology based on Doxil 6.2.2 Immune modulation using small-molecule therapeutics 6.2.3 Future directions in liposomal immune modulation 6.3 Liposomal immune modulation with liposomal gene vectors 6.3.1 Principles of liposomal gene delivery 6.3.2 In vitro liposomal gene delivery 6.3.3 In vivo liposomal gene delivery 6.3.4 Immune modulation using liposomal gene vectors 6.3.5 Future directions for liposomal gene vectors 6.4 Immune stimulation with liposomal vaccines 6.4.1 Principles of Liposomal Vaccines 6.4.2 Liposomal adjuvants 6.4.3 Liposomal vaccine clinical trials 6.5 Conclusions and future directions List of abbreviations Acknowledgments References seven Recent advances in solid lipid nanoparticles formulation and clinical applications 7.1 Lipid nanoparticles 7.1.1 Solid lipid nanoparticles 7.1.2 Nanostructured lipid carriers 7.2 Formulation components 7.2.1 Lipids 7.2.1.1 Lipids polymorphic state 7.2.1.2 Types of lipids 7.2.1.3 Lipid proportion 7.2.1.4 Presence of a liquid lipid 7.2.2 Surfactants or emulsifiers 7.2.3 Other components 7.3 Preformulation studies 7.3.1 Solubility studies 7.3.2 Partitioning analysis 7.3.3 Compatibility between solid lipids and liquid lipids 7.4 Formulation procedures 7.4.1 High-energy methods 7.4.1.1 High-pressure homogenization 7.4.1.2 Emulsification–sonication technique 7.4.1.3 Supercritical fluid technology 7.4.1.4 Hot high-shear homogenization 7.4.2 Low-energy methods 7.4.2.1 Microemulsion technique 7.4.2.2 Double emulsion 7.4.2.3 Membrane contractor technique 7.4.2.4 Phase inversion technique 7.4.2.5 Coacervation 7.4.3 Organic solvent-based approaches 7.4.3.1 Solvent emulsification–evaporation method 7.4.3.2 Solvent emulsification–diffusion method 7.4.3.3 Solvent injection method 7.5 Characterization techniques 7.5.1 Particle size and size distribution 7.5.2 Surface charge 7.5.3 Morphology 7.5.4 Degree of crystallinity and polymorphism 7.5.5 Coexistence of different colloidal structures 7.5.6 Entrapment efficiency and drug loading 7.6 Drug incorporation models 7.6.1 Drug loading models of solid lipid nanoparticles 7.6.1.1 Homogeneous matrix 7.6.1.2 Drug-enriched shell 7.6.1.3 Drug-enriched core 7.6.2 Nanostructured lipid carriers drug loading models 7.6.2.1 Imperfect type 7.6.2.2 Amorphous type 7.6.2.3 Multiple oil-in-solid fat-in-water type 7.7 Administration routes 7.7.1 Topical administration 7.7.2 Parenteral administration 7.7.3 Oral administration 7.7.4 Pulmonary administration 7.7.5 Ocular administration 7.7.6 Intranasal delivery 7.8 Solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers case studies in humans for medical applications 7.8.1 Topical administration (skin and mucosa) 7.8.2 Oral administration Self-assessment questions References eight Biopolymers, liposomes, and nanofibers as modified peroral drug release formulants 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Terminology used to describe modified release systems 8.1.2 Advantages and limitations of modified release systems 8.1.3 Historical review of modified release systems 8.1.4 Formulation of modified release dosage forms 8.1.5 Classification of modified release systems according to the drug release rate mechanism 8.2 Mathematical models for drug release 8.2.1 Zero-order kinetics 8.2.2 First-order kinetics 8.2.3 Higuchi model 8.2.4 Hixson–Crowell model 8.2.5 Korsmeyer–Peppas model 8.2.6 Weibull model 8.2.7 Other release parameters 8.3 Release profiles comparison 8.4 Biopolymers in modified peroral drug delivery 8.5 Nanofibers in modified peroral drug delivery 8.6 Examples of liposomal-modified release formulations in clinical use 8.7 Conclusion Self-assessment questions References nine Grafted polymethacrylate nanocarriers in drug delivery 9.1 Graft poly(meth)acrylates, including molecular brushes 9.2 Carriers based on poly(ethylene glycol) poly(meth)acrylate brushes 9.3 Carriers based on poly(ethylene glycol) grafted poly(meth)acrylates 9.4 Poly(ethylene glycol) and biodegradable polyester nonlinear amphiphilics 9.5 Other thermoresponsive graft polymethacrylate nanocarriers 9.6 Heterografted Janus-type carriers 9.7 Core–shell graft copolymers 9.8 Graft polymers containing disulfide linkers 9.9 Summary References Index