Badland dynamics in the context of global change

Description

Cover Badland Dynamics in the Context of Global Change 1 - Perspectives on Badland Studies in the Context of Global Change 1. Introduction: Badlands Throughout the World 2. Current Studies of Badlands: Brief Background 3. Future Research Questions in the Context of Global Change Acknowledgements References 2 - The Origin of Badlands 1. Introduction 2. Climate Distribution of Badlands 3. Badland-Shaping Processes 4. Badland-Initiation Patterns and Triggering Factors 4.1 Badland Lithology 4.2 Tectonic Factors 4.3 Changes and Fluctuations in Climate Conditions 4.4 Extreme Rainfall Events 4.5 Human Impact 5. Concluding Remarks Acknowledgements References 3 - The Role of Lithology: Parent Material Controls on Badland Development 1. Introduction 2. Main Badland Material Characteristics 2.1 Grain Size 2.2 Clay Mineralogy 2.2.1 The Impact of Different Land Uses on Clay Dispersivity 2.3 Content of Organic Carbon 2.4 Sodium Adsorption Ratio and Exchangeable Sodium Percentage 2.5 Physical Material Properties 2.6 Relation of Physical and Chemical Material Properties 3. Influence of Climate on Material Behaviour 3.1 Arid Regions 3.2 Semiarid Regions 3.3 Subhumid Regions 3.4 Humid Regions 3.5 The Role of Slope Aspect 3.6 Temporal Evolution of Material Properties 4. Weathering Profiles and Stabilization of Badland Materials 4.1 Weathering Profiles on Badland Materials 4.1.1 Case Study 1: Dinosaur Park Badlands, Canada 4.1.2 Case Study 2: Upper Orcia Valley (Italy) 4.2 Natural Geostabilization of Badland Material 5. The Effect of Material Properties on Badland Slope Denudation Processes 5.1 Rill and Gully Development 5.2 Connectivity and Rill Evolution 5.3 Rills and Tectonics 5.4 Piping Initiation 5.5 Calanchi and Biancane 5.6 Landsliding 6. Conclusions Acknowledgements References 4 - Badlands and the Dynamics of Human History, Land Use, and Vegetation Through Centuries 1. Introduction 2. The Study Site 2.1 Biancana Badlands: A Field Laboratory 2.2 Present Vegetation 2.2.1 Remnants of Biancana Badlands Are Small Islands in an Agricultural Landscape in Need of Restoration 2.2.2 Vegetation Succession 2.3 Social Environment and Biancana Badland Generation 2.4 Sedimentation Rate at the Delta of the Ombrone River 2.5 Climate 3. Materials and Methods 3.1 Plant Species Functional Traits 3.2 Denudation Rate in the Leonina Badlands 3.3 Population Estimation 4. Results and Discussion 4.1 Interaction Between Vegetation and Soil/Sediment: How Erosion Is Limited by Plant 4.1.1 Plant Functional Traits 4.2 Estimating the Denudation Rate of the Leonina Biancanas 4.3 Historical Development of the Local Landscape of the Leonina Badlands 5. Conclusions Acknowledgements References 5 - Runoff Generation in Badlands 1. Introduction 2. Field Observations of Runoff Rates at Different Scales Under Contrasted Climates and Lithology Conditions 3. Mechanisms of Runoff Generation and Time- and Scale-dependent Drivers 3.1 Time- and Scale-Dependent Drivers 3.1.1 Plot Scale Drivers 3.1.1.1 Soil Surface Processes and Dynamics: Crusting, Shrinking–Swelling and Frost–Thaw Cycles 3.1.1.2 Soil Surface Components 3.1.1.3 Subsurface Drivers 3.1.2 Hillslope Scale Drivers 3.1.3 Catchment Scale Drivers 3.2 Revisiting the Responses of Badlands to Rainfall: Infiltration Excess Overland Flow; Partial Area Infiltration Excess; Satura... 4. Global Change Impacts on Badland Runoff 4.1 Midlatitude Arid and Semiarid and Subtropical Badlands 4.2 Humid Badlands From Midlatitudes Continental and Mountain Areas and Tropical Badlands 5. Research Gaps and Future Research 6. Conclusions Acknowledgements References 6 - The Role of Piping in the Development of Badlands 1. Introduction 2. Predisposing Factors (Table 6.2) 2.1 High SAR (Sodium Absorption Ratio) 2.2 Double-Layer Clays 2.2.1 The Percentage of Double-Layer Clays in the Material Structure 2.3 A Hydraulic Gradient to an Outfall 2.3.1 Hydraulic Gradients in Rejuvenating Landscapes With Incision 2.3.2 Mass Movement Failure Surfaces and Hydraulic Gradients 2.3.3 Infiltrating Surface and Presence of Vegetation 2.4 The Role of Management 2.4.1 Hydraulic Gradients in Reworked Material 2.4.2 Gradient Controls on Reworked Sites 3. Characteristics of Badlands Prone to Piping 3.1 Small Scale 3.1.1 Nondispersive Crusts 3.1.2 Discontinuous Rills Developing in Subcrust Positions With Semicircular Cross Sections and Bridges 3.2 Medium Scale 3.2.1 Roof Collapse Features; Larger Bridges, Hammerhead Gully Forms; and ‘Slot’ Cross Sections 3.2.2 A ‘Double-Decker’ Process Suite 3.2.3 Process Complexity/Cyclicity 3.2.4 Sections of the Landscape Stabilized by Mass Movements Into or Below the Pipes 3.3 Larger Scale 3.3.1 Bank Gullies 3.3.2 Major Depressions 4. Piping, Geostabilization, Connectivity and Time in Badlands 4.1 Possibility of Stabilization in Disconnecting (‘Old Age’) Systems 5. Remediation of Materials Prone to Piping 6. Implications of Dispersivity for Badland Studies References 7 - Rethinking Spatial and Temporal Variability of Erosion in Badlands 1. Introduction 2. Methods for Measuring Badlands 3. Factors Affecting Erosion in Badlands 4. Spatial Variability of Erosion in Dry and Humid Badlands 5. Temporal Variability of Erosion in Badlands 6. Erosion Processes in Badlands: Small-Scale Spatial Variability 7. Sediment Yield and Connectivity in Experimental Badlands Catchments 8. How Can We Limit Sediment Yield From Badlands? 9. Badlands Erosion and Global Change 10. Conclusions Acknowledgements References 8 - Assessing Badland Sediment Sources Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 1. Mapping Badlands 2. Study Site, Data Acquisition and Digital Terrain Model Generation 2.1 Study Site 2.2 Data Acquisition 2.2.1 Camera and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Settings 2.2.2 Ground Control 2.3 Image Processing 2.4 Image Analysis 2.4.1 Identification of Potential Sediment Sources and Sinks 2.4.2 Area and Volume Estimation 3. Results 3.1 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Imagery and Quality 3.1.1 High-Resolution Orthomosaic 3.1.2 High-Resolution Digital Terrain Models 3.2 Image Analysis/Area and Volume Estimation 3.2.1 Reservoir Storage Capacity 3.2.2 Badland Volumes and Spatial Extent of Eroding Areas 4. Discussion 4.1 Comparison of Interpolated and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle–Acquired Digital Terrain Model 4.2 Image Quality 4.3 Can Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Be Used to Identify Badlands as Sediment Sources? 4.4 Can Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Be Used to Quantify Sediment Sources? 4.5 Can Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Be Used to Identify and Quantify Sediment Sinks? 4.6 Sediment Volume Balance 5. Conclusion Acknowledgements References 9 - Geotouristic Value of Badlands 1. Introduction 2. Study Areas and Their Scientific Value 3. Badlands as Touristic and Geotouristic Destinations 4. Badlands and Geotourism 5. Threats to the Geotouristic Values of Badlands 6. Conclusions References Index