Think critically

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Cover Title Page Copyright Page Brief Contents Contents Acknowledgments Preface About the Authors Chapter 1 The Power of Critical Thinking Risk and Uncertainty Abound Critical Thinking and a Free Society The One and the Many What Do We Mean by “Critical Thinking”? Expert Consensus Conceptualization “Critical Thinking” Does Not Mean “Negative Thinking” Improvement Takes Practice Evaluating Critical Thinking The Students’ Assignment—Kennedy Act The Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric The Students’ Assignment—Haiti Summing up this chapter Key Concept Applications Chapter 2 Critical Thinking Mindset and Skills Positive Critical Thinking Habits of Mind The Spirit of a Strong Critical Thinker Positive vs. Negative Habits of Mind Preliminary Self-Assessment Research on the Positive Critical Thinking Mindset Seven Positive Critical Thinking Habits of Mind Negative Habits of Mind Is a Good Critical Thinker Automatically a Good Person? Cultivate a Positive Critical Thinking Mindset Core Critical Thinking Skills Interpreting and Analyzing the Consensus Statement The Jury Is Deliberating Critical Thinking Skills Fire in Many Combinations Strengthening Our Core Critical Thinking Skills The Art of the Good Question Skills and Subskills Defined Looking Ahead Summing up this chapter Key Concepts Applications Chapter 3 Solve Problems and Succeedin College Differences and Similarities IDEAS: A 5-Step Critical Thinking General Problem-Solving Process Educating the Whole Person Social Relationships STEP 1: IDENTIFY the Problem and Set Priorities Vocation STEP 1: IDENTIFY the Problem and Set Priorities STEP 2: DETERMINE relevant Information and Deepen Understanding Academics The First Two IDEAS Steps in Maria’s Case Health and Physical Well-being The First Three Steps in Leah’s Case Problems in College and Beyond Emotional Well-Being Spiritual Development Summing up this chapter Key Concept Applications Chapter 4 Clarify Ideas and Concepts Interpretation, Context, and Purpose Meaning Matters But, Clear Enough for What? Worth 1000 Words Communication, Language, and Thought When Vagueness or Ambiguity Cause Misunderstandings Vagueness: “Does the Meaning Include This Case or Not?” Problematic Vagueness Ambiguity: “Which Meaning Are We Using?” Problematic Ambiguity Resolving Problematic Vagueness and Ambiguity Contextualizing Clarifying Original Intent Negotiating the Meaning Using Qualifications, Exceptions, or Exclusions Stipulating the Meaning Donkey Cart Words Signal Twisted Meanings Language Communities National and Global Language Communities Language Communities Formed of People with Like Interests Academic Disciplines as Language Communities Critical Thinking and College Introductory Courses Summing up this chapter Key Concepts Applications Chapter 5 Analyze Argumentsand Diagram Decisions Analyzing Reasons and Claims Accuracy Depends on Context and Purpose Over-Simplification Masks Reality “Reason” and “Premise” Mapping Claims and the Reasons for Them Interpreting Unspoken Reasons and Claims in Context Interpreting the Use of Irony, Humor, Sarcasm, and More Analyzing Arguments in Context The El Train Argument The “Guns for Kids” Conversation Analyzing and Mapping Decisions “We Should Cancel the Spring Trip” #1 “We Should Cancel the Spring Trip” #2 Summing up this chapter Key Concepts Applications Chapter 6 Evaluate the Credibilityof Claims and Sources Assessing the Source: Whom Should I Trust? Claims without Reasons Cognitive Development and Healthy Skepticism Authority and Expertise Learned and Experienced On-Topic, Up-To-Date,and Capable of Explaining Unbiased and Truthful Free of Conflicts of Interest, and Acting in theClient’s Interest Unconstrained, Informed about the Caseat Hand, and Mentally Stable Twelve Characteristics of a Trustworthy Source Assessing the Substance—What Should I Believe? Personal Muck and Gunk Monitor Self-Contradictions and Tautologies Marketing, Spin, Disinformation, and Propaganda Slanted Language and Loaded Expressions Independent Verification Can the Claim Be Confirmed? Can the Claim Be Disconfirmed? More than a Healthy Sense of Skepticism Only Independent Investigation and the Q-Ray Bracelet Case Suspending Judgment Summing up this chapter Key Concepts Applications Chapter 7 Evaluate Arguments: Four Basic Tests Giving Reasons and Making Arguments Truthfulness Logical Strength Relevance Non-Circularity The Four Tests for Evaluating Arguments Test #1: Truthfulness of the Premises Test #2: Logical Strength Test #3: Relevance Test #4: Non-Circularity Argument Making Contexts Common Reasoning Errors Fallacies of Relevance Appeals to Ignorance Appeals to the Mob Appeals to Emotion Ad HominemAttacks Straw Man Fallacy Playing withWords Fallacy Misuse of Authority Fallacy Summing up this chapter Key Concepts Applications Chapter 8 Valid Inferences The Structure of the Reasoning Inferences Offered as Certain Reasoning with Declarative Statements Denying the Consequent Affirming theAntecedent Disjunctive Syllogism Reasoning about Classes of Objects Applying a Generalization Applying an Exception The Power of Only Reasoning about Relationships Transitivity, reflexivity, and Identity Fallacies Masquerading as Valid Arguments Fallacies When Reasoning with Declarative Statements Affirming the Consequent Denying the Antecedent Fallacies When Reasoning about Classes of Objects False Classification Fallacies of Compositionand Division Fallacies of False Reference Personal Infallibility? We Don’t Think So Summing up this chapter Key Concept Applications Chapter 9 Warranted Inferences The Evidence Currently at Hand The “Weight of Evidence” Evaluating Generalizations Was the Correct Group Sampled? Were the Data Obtained in an Effective Way? Were Enough Cases Considered? Was the Sample representatively Structured? Coincidences, Patterns, Correlations, and Causes Coincidences Patterns Correlations Causes Fallacies Masquerading as Warranted Arguments Erroneous Generalization Playing withNumbers False Dilemma The Gambler’sFallacy False Cause Slippery Slope Summing up this chapter Key Concept Applications Chapter 10 Snap Judgments: Risks and Benefits of Heuristic Thinking Our Two Human Decision-Making Systems The “Two-Systems” Approach to Human Decision Making Reactive (System-1) Thinking Reflective (System-2)Thinking The Value of Each System Heuristics: Their Benefits and Risks Individual Cognitive Heuristics 1. Satisficing and 2. Temporizing 3. Affect: “Go withYour Gut” 4. Simulation 5. Availability 6. Representation 7. Association 8. Stereotyping 9. “Us vs.Them” 10. Power Differential 11. Anchoring withAdjustment 12. Illusion of Control 13. OptimisticBias and 14. Hindsight Bias 15. Elimination by Aspect:“One Strike and You’re Out” 16. Loss and RiskAversion 17. “All or Nothing” Heuristics in Action Summing up this chapter Key Concepts Applications Chapter 11 Reflective Decision Making Dominance Structuring: A Fortress of Conviction “I Would Definitely Go to the Doctor” Explaining and Defending Ourselves A Poorly Crafted Assignment Moving from Decision to Action Phase 1: Pre-Editing Phase 2: Identifying One PromisingOption Phase 3: Testing the Promising Option Phase 4: Fortifying the To-Be-Chosen Option Benefits and Risks of Dominance Structuring Self-Regulation Critical Thinking Skill Strategies Precautions When Pre-Editing Be Sure about “The Problem” Specify theDecision-Critical Attributes Be Clear about Whyan Option Is In or Out Precautions When Identifying the Promising Option Scrutinize Options with Disciplined Impartiality Listen to Both Sides First Precautions When Testing the Promising Option Use All the Essential Criteria Treat Equals as Equals Diligently Engage in Truth-Seeking and remain Impartial Precautions When Fortifying the To-Be-Chosen Option Be Honest with Yourself Critical Thinking Strategies for Better Decision Making Task Independent Teams with the Same Problem Decide When It’s Time to Decide Analyze Indicators and Make Midcourse Corrections Create a Culture of respect for Critical Thinking Summing up this chapter Key Concepts Applications Chapter 12 Comparative Reasoning Recognizing Comparative Reasoning Our Minds Crave Patterns Comparative, Ideological, and Empirical Inferences How This Chapter Connects to Others Gardens of Comparatives Powerful Comparisons Connect Intellect and Emotion Evaluating Comparative Inferences Do the Four Tests of Acceptability Apply? Five Criteria for Evaluating Comparative Reasoning Familiarity Simplicity Comprehensiveness Productivity Testability Models and Metaphors Shape Expectations Creative Suggestions vs. Solid Proofs The Center of the Universe for Two Thousand Years The Many Uses of Comparative Inferences Summing up this chapter Key Concepts Applications Chapter 13 Ideological Reasoning Recognizing Ideological Reasoning Examples of Ideological Reasoning Three Features of Ideological Reasoning Ideological reasoning Is Deductive in Character Ideological Premises Are Axiomatic The Argument Maker Takes the Ideological Absolutes on Faith Evaluating Ideological Reasoning Are the Ideological Premises True? Logical Strength and Ideological Belief Systems Relevancy, Non-Circularity, and Ideological Reasoning Uses, Benefits, and Risks of Ideological Reasoning Summing up this chapter Key Concept Applications Chapter 14 Empirical Reasoning Recognizing Empirical Reasoning Characteristics of Empirical Reasoning Empirical Reasoning Is Inductive Empirical ReasoningIs Self-Corrective Empirical Reasoning Is Open toIndependent Verification Hypotheses, Conditions, and Measurable Manifestations Conducting an Investigation Scientifically Perhaps the First Recorded Empirical Investigation Steps in the Process: An Extended Example Evaluating Empirical Reasoning Benefits and Risks Associated with Empirical Reasoning Summing up this chapter Key Concepts Applications Chapter 15 Write Sound and Effective Arguments What Critical Thinking Questions Do Effective Writers Ask? The Rhetorical Situation Think Author Find Your Voice Think about Who You Read Think Audience What Does the Audience Care About? Writing for You Who Is Your Audience? Same Author and Audience, Different Purpose Think Purpose and Circumstances Think Tactics Clues from Contextual Cues Organize and Develop Your Presentation Reach Out and Grab Someone Crafting a Presentation Good News: Writing Is Work An Arguable Thesis Statement and Solid Research Map Out the Arguments Proand Con—Then Outline Your Case “BART’S Decision—Draft” Evaluating the Credibility of Sources Prewriting, Writing, and Rewriting Two Practical Tips Evaluating Effectiveness Features of Sound and Effective Written Argumentation A Tool for Evaluating Critical Thinking and Writing How to Apply the Rubric for Evaluating Written Argumentation Summing up this chapter Key Concepts Applications Chapter 16 Ethical Decision Making Ethical Imperatives Think Consequences Think Duties Think Virtues Decision Making and Ethical Decision Making Reactive and Reflective Ethical Decision Making Thinking Through Diverging Ethical Imperatives Prioritize, Create, and Negotiate Establish Priorities Create Additiona Options Negotiate Based on Each Party’s Interests Personal Consistency and Respect for Others Apply the “Golden Rule”—Do Unto Others As YouWould Have Others Do Unto You Summing up this chapter Key Concepts Applications Chapter 17 The Logic of Declarative Statements Declarative Statements Simple Statements Negations Statement Compounds: And, Or, If . . . Then, etc. Conjunctions Disjunctions Conditionals Translating Between Symbolic Logic and a Natural Language Grammatically Correct Expressions Translation to English Translating to Symbolic Logic Example: Translating a Telephone Tree What the Example Teaches about Translation Detecting the Logical Characteristics of Statements Building Truth Tables Tautologies, Inconsistent Statements, and Contingent Statements Testing for Implication and Equivalence Evaluating Arguments for Validity Testing Symbolic Arguments for Validity Testing Natural Language Arguments for Validity Summing up this chapter Key Concepts Applications Appendix: Extend Argument-Decision Mapping Strategies Glossary Endnotes Credits Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y