UV-Visible Spectrophotometry of Water and Wastewater

Description

Front-matter_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-Wastewater UV-Visible Spectrophotometry of Water and Wastewater Copyright_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-Wastewater Copyright List-of-Contributors_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-Wastewat List of Contributors Preface-to-the-Second-Edit_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-Wa Preface to the Second Edition Chapter-1---The-Basis-for-Good-Spectropho_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry- 1 The Basis for Good Spectrophotometric UV–Visible Measurements 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Interaction of Light With Matter 1.2.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 1.2.2 The Origin of Spectra, Absorption of Radiation by Atoms, Ions and Molecules 1.2.2.1 Fundamental Processes 1.2.2.2 Optical Processes in Spectrophotometry 1.2.2.3 Chromophores 1.2.3 Quantitative Laws of the Attenuation of Light 1.2.4 Presentation of Spectral Data 1.2.5 Nomenclature 1.3 Factors Affecting the Quality of Spectral Data 1.3.1 Good Spectroscopic Practice 1.3.2 Instrumental Performance Criteria 1.3.3 Use of Certified Reference Materials 1.3.4 Procedures and Best Practices for Assuring Spectrophotometer Performance 1.3.4.1 Wavelength Accuracy and Reproducibility 1.3.4.2 Absorbance, Accuracy and Reproducibility 1.3.4.3 Stray-Light 1.3.4.4 Resolution 1.3.4.5 Optimal Spectrophotometric Range 1.4 Sample Presentation 1.4.1 Cuvettes 1.4.2 Cleaning Procedures 1.5 Factors Influencing Spectral Characteristics 1.5.1 Sample Handing and Storage 1.5.2 Turbidity 1.5.3 Solvent Quality and Polarity 1.5.4 pH 1.5.5 Ionic Strength 1.5.6 Temperature 1.5.7 Data Treatment 1.5.7.1 Averaging and Smoothing 1.5.7.2 Derivatives 1.5.7.3 Spectral Correction 1.6 Data Integrity and Security References Further Reading Chapter-2---From-Spectra-to-Qualitative_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of 2 From Spectra to Qualitative and Quantitative Results 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Basic Handling of UV Spectra 2.2.1 One Spectrum Transformation 2.2.1.1 Coloured Scale 2.2.1.2 Derivative Spectra 2.2.1.3 Shape Factor 2.2.1.4 Smoothing 2.2.2 Two-Spectra Comparison 2.2.2.1 Differential Spectrum 2.2.2.2 Direct Comparison 2.2.2.3 Normalisation 2.2.3 Evolution Study from a Spectra Set 2.2.3.1 Isosbestic Points 2.2.3.2 Hidden Isosbestic Points 2.2.3.3 Application: Variability Estimation 2.3 Concentration Calculation 2.3.1 Ideal Case: Pure Solution with No Interference 2.3.1.1 Simple Absorptiometry for One Analyte 2.3.1.2 Two Analytes 2.3.1.3 Multicomponent Method by Multilinear Regression (MLR) 2.3.2 Real Samples: Compensation of Interferences 2.3.2.1 Two Wavelengths Approach 2.3.2.2 Spectra Slopes 2.3.2.3 Derivative Methods 2.3.2.4 Polynomial Compensation of Interferences 2.3.2.5 Chemometric Analysis: PCA, PCR and PLS 2.3.2.6 Ultra-violet spectral deconvolution (UVSD)/Semideterministic Method 2.3.3 Real Samples: Pretreatment Steps for Improving UV Response 2.4 Examples of Application Acknowledgements References Chapter-3---Organic-Constit_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-W 3 Organic Constituents 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Coloured Organic Compounds 3.2.1 Dyes 3.2.1.1 Azoic Dyes 3.2.1.2 Anthraquinonic Dyes 3.2.1.3 Other Dyes 3.2.2 Coloured Reagents 3.2.2.1 pH Indicators 3.2.2.2 Redox Indicator 3.2.2.3 Complexometry Indicators 3.3 UV-Absorbing Organic Compounds 3.3.1 Aldehydes and Ketones 3.3.2 Aldehydes 3.3.2.1 Ketones 3.3.3 Amines 3.3.4 Aniline 3.3.4.1 Chloroanilines 3.3.4.2 Toluidine and Anisidine 3.3.4.3 Other Aromatic Amines 3.3.4.4 Applications 3.3.5 Benzene and Related Compounds 3.3.5.1 BTEX 3.3.5.2 Chlorobenzene 3.3.6 Pesticides 3.3.6.1 Herbicides 3.3.6.2 Insecticides 3.3.7 Pharmaceuticals 3.3.8 Phenols 3.3.8.1 Alkylphenols 3.3.8.2 Chlorophenols 3.3.8.3 Nitrophenols 3.3.8.4 Polyphenols 3.3.8.5 Phenol Index 3.3.9 Phthalates 3.3.10 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 3.3.10.1 Solvent Effect 3.3.10.2 Influence of the Number of Aromatic Rings 3.3.10.3 Isomeric PAH UV Spectra 3.3.10.4 Introduction of a Five-Membered Cycle in the PAH Structure 3.3.10.5 PAH (Index) 3.3.11 Sulphur Organic Compounds 3.3.12 Surfactants 3.4 Solid-Phase Extraction and UV-Visible Spectrophotometry 3.5 Nonabsorbing Organic Compounds 3.5.1 Carbonyl Compounds: Use of Absorbing Derivatives 3.5.2 Aliphatic Amines and Amino Acids: Photo-Oxidation 3.5.3 Carbohydrates: Photodegradation Ackowledgments References Further Reading Chapter-4---Aggregate-Organic-Co_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water- 4 Aggregate Organic Constituents 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Dissolved Organic Matter 4.3 Reference Methods Assistance 4.3.1 TOC, DOC Explanation 4.3.2 BOD Measurement 4.3.3 COD Final Determination 4.4 UV Estimation of TOC, DOC, COD, and BOD5 4.4.1 UV-Spectra Exploitation From a Limited Number of Wavelengths 4.4.2 UV-Spectra Exploitation From a Multiwavelengths Approach 4.4.3 Validation 4.5 UV Recovery of Organic Pollution Parameters References Chapter-5---Mineral-Constit_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-W 5 Mineral Constituents 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Inorganic Nonmetallic Constituents 5.2.1 N Compounds 5.2.2 General Procedure 5.2.3 Nitrate 5.2.4 Nitrite 5.2.5 TKN 5.2.6 Ammonium 5.2.7 P Compounds 5.2.8 General Procedure 5.2.9 Orthophosphates 5.2.10 Total Phosphorus 5.2.11 S Compounds 5.2.12 Cl Compounds 5.2.13 Chloride 5.2.14 Hypochlorite 5.2.15 Organochlorine Compounds 5.3 Metallic Constituents 5.3.1 Chromium (Direct Measurement) 5.3.1.1 Hexavalent Chromium 5.3.1.2 Trivalent Chromium 5.3.2 Metallic Constituents Determination by Complexometry References Chapter-6---Physical-and-Aggregat_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water 6 Physical and Aggregate Properties 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Colour 6.2.1 Determination of Colour 6.2.2 Relation Between Colour and Visible Absorbance 6.3 Physical Diffuse Absorption 6.3.1 Some Elements on Diffusion of Light by Particles 6.3.2 Methods for the Study of Heterogeneous Fractions 6.3.3 UV-Visible Responses of Mineral Suspensions 6.3.4 UV Responses of Microorganisms 6.3.5 UV Responses of Wastewater 6.4 TSS Estimation 6.4.1 Turbidimetry 6.4.2 UV Estimation of TSS References Chapter-7---Natural-Wat_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-Waste 7 Natural Water 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Significance of UV Spectra of Natural Water 7.3 Quality of Natural Water 7.3.1 Water Quality Variation Along a River 7.3.2 Rain Influence on River Water Quality 7.3.3 Wetland Water Quality 7.3.4 Lakes Water Quality 7.3.5 Groundwater Quality 7.4 Recent Advances in Freshwater Quality UV Monitoring 7.4.1 About Isosbestic Point(s) 7.4.2 Relation Between Parameters (DOC/NO3) 7.4.3 Second Derivative Renewal 7.4.4 High-Frequency Monitoring 7.5 Point Source and Accidental Discharge 7.5.1 Discharge in River 7.5.2 Discharge in Sea 7.5.3 Accidental Discharge Acknowledgments References Chapter-8---Drinking-Wat_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-Wast 8 Drinking Water 8.1 Introduction 8.2 From Resources to Tap Water 8.2.1 Baseline Conditions 8.2.2 Rainfalls Conditions 8.3 Production of Tap Water in a Large Treatment Plant 8.3.1 Routine Monitoring 8.4 Early Warning Systems 8.5 Disinfection by-Products 8.6 Bottled Drinking Waters 8.6.1 Spring Water 8.6.2 Mineral Water 8.6.3 Other Bottled Waters References Chapter-9---Urban-Wastewa_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-Was 9 Urban Wastewater 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Sewers 9.2.1 Fresh Domestic Effluent 9.2.2 Variation of Quality According to Time 9.2.3 Evolution Along the Sewer 9.2.4 Effect of Rain 9.3 Synthesis and Other Applications 9.4 Treatment Processes 9.4.1 Primary Settling Assistance 9.4.2 Physico-Chemical Treatment Assistance 9.4.3 Jar Test 9.4.4 Problem of Sample Aging 9.4.5 Biological Processes 9.4.6 Complementary Technique: Membrane Filtration and Activated Carbon 9.5 Applications 9.5.1 Fixed Biomass Treatment Plant 9.5.2 Extensive Process 9.5.3 Ozone Treatment for Treated Effluent 9.6 Classification of Wastewater 9.6.1 Typology of Urban Wastewater from UV Spectra Shape 9.6.2 Automatic Classification of Water and Wastewater Acknowledgments References Chapter-10---Industrial-Wast_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and- 10 Industrial Wastewater 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Wastewater Characteristics 10.2.1 Generalities 10.2.2 Influence of Industry Nature 10.2.3 Variability of Industrial Wastewater Quality [3] 10.2.4 Quantitative Estimation 10.3 Treatment Processes 10.3.1 Physico-chemical Processes 10.3.2 Biological Processes 10.3.3 Hyphenated Processes 10.4 Waste Management 10.4.1 Sampling Assistance 10.4.2 Treatability Tests Assistance 10.4.3 Spills Detection 10.4.4 Shock Loading Management 10.4.5 External Waste Management 10.5 Environmental Impact 10.5.1 Discharge 10.5.2 Groundwater Survey Acknowledgments References Chapter-11---Leachates-and-Organic-E_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Wa 11 Leachates and Organic Extracts From Solids 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Landfill Leachates 11.2.1 Leachate Characterisation 11.2.1.1 Direct Examination of UV Spectra 11.2.1.2 pH Effect 11.2.2 Leachate Treatment 11.2.2.1 Coagulation–Flocculation With FeCl3 11.2.2.2 Photo-Oxidation 11.3 Polluted Soils 11.3.1 Polluted Soils Characterisation 11.3.1.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 11.3.1.2 Petroleum Hydrocarbons 11.3.2 Treatment of Polluted Soils 11.3.2.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 11.3.2.2 Petroleum Hydrocarbons 11.4 Solid Wastes Treatment by Composting 11.4.1 Characterisation of Solid Wastes 11.4.2 Composting of Solid Wastes 11.5 Soils, Sediments, and Wetlands 11.5.1 Soils 11.5.2 Sediments 11.5.3 Wetlands References Further Reading Chapter-12---UV-Spectra-Lib_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-W 12 UV Spectra Library 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Spectra Acquisition 12.3 Spectra of Compounds 12.3.1 Acids and Salts 12.3.1.1 Acetic Acid 12.3.1.2 Butyric Acid 12.3.1.3 EDTA 12.3.1.4 Formic Acid 12.3.1.5 Oxalic Acid 12.3.1.6 Propionic Acid 12.3.1.7 Sodium Salicylate 12.3.1.8 Potassium Sodium Tartrate 12.3.2 Aldehydes and Ketones 12.3.2.1 Acetaldehyde 12.3.2.2 Acetone 12.3.2.3 Benzaldehyde 12.3.2.4 2-Butanone 12.3.2.5 Butyraldéhyde 12.3.2.6 Diisobutylketone 12.3.2.7 Formaldehyde 12.3.2.8 Isobutyl Methyl Ketone 12.3.3 Amines and Related Compounds 12.3.3.1 Aniline 12.3.3.2 p-Anisidine 12.3.3.3 2-Chloroaniline 12.3.3.4 4-Chloroaniline 12.3.3.5 2-Chloro-4-Methylaniline 12.3.3.6 3,4-Dichloroaniline 12.3.3.7 Diethylamine 12.3.3.8 Diethanolamine 12.3.3.9 Glutamic Acid 12.3.3.10 Glycine 12.3.3.11 4-Nitroaniline 12.3.3.12 m-Toluidine 12.3.3.13 p-Toluidine 12.3.3.14 Tyrosine 12.3.3.15 4,4’-Diaminodiphenylmethane 12.3.4 Benzene and Related Compounds 12.3.4.1 Benzene 12.3.4.2 Chlorobenzene 12.3.4.3 Ethylbenzene 12.3.4.4 Toluene 12.3.4.5 m-Xylene 12.3.4.6 o-Xylene 12.3.4.7 p-Xylene 12.3.5 Pesticides 12.3.5.1 2-4-Dichlorophenoxy Acetic Acid (2-4 D) 12.3.5.2 Alachlor 12.3.5.3 Atrazine 12.3.5.4 Carbaryl 12.3.5.5 Chlorpyrifos 12.3.5.6 Chlortoluron 12.3.5.7 Diazinon 12.3.5.8 Dichlorprop 12.3.5.9 Dimethoate 12.3.5.10 Dinoterb 12.3.5.11 Diquat 12.3.5.12 Diuron 12.3.5.13 Hexazinone 12.3.5.14 Isoproturon 12.3.5.15 Linuron 12.3.5.16 Malathion 12.3.5.17 Metazachlor 12.3.5.18 Metolachlor 12.3.5.19 Paraquat 12.3.5.20 Parathion 12.3.5.21 Simazine 12.3.5.22 Terbuthylazine 12.3.5.23 Terbutryn 12.3.6 Pharmaceuticals 12.3.6.1 1,7 Ethinylestradiol 12.3.6.2 Acetaminohen 12.3.6.3 Atenolol 12.3.6.4 Caffeine 12.3.6.5 Carbamazepine 12.3.6.6 Ciprofloxacine 12.3.6.7 Clofibric Acid 12.3.6.8 Diatrozoate 12.3.6.9 Diclofenac 12.3.6.10 Erythromycine 12.3.6.11 Ibuprofen 12.3.6.12 Methylparaben 12.3.6.13 Sulfamethoxazole 12.3.6.14 Trimethoprim 12.3.6.15 Warfarin 12.3.7 Phenol and Related Compounds 12.3.7.1 Phenol 12.3.7.2 4-Chloro-3-Methylphenol 12.3.7.3 2-Chlorophenol 12.3.7.4 3-Chlorophenol 12.3.7.5 4-Chlorophenol 12.3.7.6 m-Cresol 12.3.7.7 o-Cresol 12.3.7.8 p-Cresol 12.3.7.9 4,5-Dichlorocatechol 12.3.7.10 2,3-Dichlorophenol 12.3.7.11 2,4-Dichlorophenol 12.3.7.12 2,5-Dimethylphenol 12.3.7.13 4,6-Dinitro-2-Methylphenol 12.3.7.14 2-Nitrophenol 12.3.7.15 3-Nitrophenol 12.3.7.16 4-Nitrophenol 12.3.7.17 Pentachlorophenol 12.3.7.18 Pyrocatechol 12.3.7.19 2-Tert-Butyl-4-Methylphenol 12.3.7.20 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol 12.3.7.21 2,4,6-Trimethylphenol 12.3.7.22 Bisphenol A 12.3.8 Phthalates 12.3.8.1 Butyl Benzyl Phthalate 12.3.8.2 Di-Butyl Phthalate 12.3.8.3 Di-Ethyl Phthalate 12.3.8.4 Potassium Hydrogen Phthalate 12.3.8.5 DEHP 12.3.9 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 12.3.9.1 Acenaphthene 12.3.9.2 Acenaphthylene 12.3.9.3 Anthracene 12.3.9.4 Benzo(a)anthracene 12.3.9.5 Benzo(a)pyrene 12.3.9.6 Benzo(b)fluoranthene 12.3.9.7 Benzo(g,h,i)perylene 12.3.9.8 Benzo(k)fluoranthene 12.3.9.9 Chrysene 12.3.9.10 Dibenz(a,h)anthracene 12.3.9.11 Fluoranthene 12.3.9.12 Fluorene 12.3.9.13 Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene 12.3.9.14 Naphthalene 12.3.9.15 Phenanthrene 12.3.9.16 Pyrene 12.3.10 Surfactants 12.3.10.1 Alkyl Diphenyloxide Disulfonate, Disodium Salt 12.3.10.2 Dodecyl Benzene Sulfonate 12.3.10.3 Nonyl Phenol Ethoxylate 12.3.10.4 Octyl Phenol Ethoxylate 12.3.10.5 Sodium-N-Methyl-N-Oleoyl-Taurate 12.3.11 Solvents 12.3.11.1 Acetone 12.3.11.2 Acetonitrile 12.3.11.3 Ethanol 12.3.11.4 Hexane 12.3.12 Inorganic Compounds 12.3.12.1 Ammonium Chloride 12.3.12.2 Hydrogen Peroxide 12.3.12.3 Iodine 12.3.12.4 Potassium Cyanide 12.3.12.5 Potassium Dichromate 12.3.12.6 Potassium Iodate 12.3.12.7 Potassium Iodide 12.3.12.8 Potassium Metaperiodate 12.3.12.9 Potassium Permanganate 12.3.12.10 Sodium Chlorate 12.3.12.11 Sodium Chromate 12.3.12.12 Sodium Cyanide 12.3.12.13 Sodium Hypochlorite 12.3.12.14 Sodium Nitrate (Low Concentration) 12.3.12.15 Sodium Nitrate (High Concentration) 12.3.12.16 Sodium Nitrite (Low Concentration) 12.3.12.17 Sodium Nitrite (High Concentration) 12.3.12.18 Sodium Tetraborate Decahydrate Acknowledgments References Index_2017_UV-Visible-Spectrophotometry-of-Water-and-Wastewater Index