Lightning Interaction with Power Systems: Fundamentals and modelling (Volume 1) (Energy Engineering)

Description

The need to improve the reliability and robustness of power systems and smart grids makes protection of sensitive equipment and power transmission and distribution lines against lightning-related effects a primary concern. Renewable electricity generation capacity has been increasing all over the world, and lightning can cause failures either by hitting the turbines or panels directly or inducing transients on the control systems that lead to equipment failure, malfunction or degradation. This two-volume set assesses how global lightning may respond to global climate change, provides thorough coverage of the lightning phenomenon and its interaction with various objects, and covers methods for the effective protection of structures and systems. It is a valuable reference for researchers in the fields of lightning and power systems, for transmission and distribution line engineers and designers, and is a useful text for related advanced courses. Volume 1 covers fundamentals and modelling of lightning interaction with power systems, including lightning and climate change; lightning phenomenon and parameters for engineering applications; lightning return stroke models for electromagnetic field calculations; lightning geolocation information for power system analyses; lightning attachment to overhead power lines; field-to-transmission line coupling models; lightning response of grounding electrodes; surge protective devices; modelling of power transmission line components; and modelling of power distribution components. Volume 2 addresses various applications including power substations, transmission lines, overhead distribution systems and networks, smart grids, and wind and photovoltaic systems. Contents About the editor Preface Acknowledgements About the authors 1. Lightning and Climate Change-Earle R. Williams 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Basics of Thunderstorm Electrification and Lightning 1.3 Thermodynamic Control on Lightning Activity 1.3.1 Temperature 1.3.2 Dew Point Temperature 1.3.3 Water Vapor and the Clausius–Clapeyron Relationship 1.3.4 Convective Available Potential Energy and its Temperature Dependence 1.3.5 Cloud Base Height and its Influence on Cloud Microphysics 1.3.6 Balance Level considerations in deep convection 1.3.7 Baroclinicity 1.4 Global Lightning Response to Temperature on Different Time Scales 1.4.1 Diurnal Variation 1.4.2 Semiannual Variation 1.4.3 Annual Variation 1.4.4 ENSO 1.4.5 Decadal Time Scale 1.4.6 Multi-decadal Time Scale 1.5 Aerosol Influence on Moist Convection and Lightning Activity 1.5.1 Basic Concepts 1.5.2 Observational Support 1.6 Nocturnal Thunderstorms 1.7 Meteorological Control on Lightning Type 1.8 The Global Circuits as Monitors for Destructive Lightning and Climate Change 1.9 Expectations for the Future References 2. Lightning Phenomenon and Parameters for Engineering Application-Vladimir A. Rakov 2.1 Types of Lightning and Main Lightning Processes 2.1.1 Overview 2.1.2 Downward Negative Lightning 2.1.3 Downward Positive Lightning 2.1.4 Artificially Initiated Lightning 2.1.5 Upward Lightning 2.2 Number of Strokes per Flash 2.3 Interstroke Intervals and Flash Duration 2.4 Multiple Channel Terminations on Ground 2.5 Relative Stroke Intensity within the Flash 2.6 Return-stroke Peak Current—“classical” Distributions 2.7 Return-stroke Peak Current—recent Direct Measurements 2.8 Current Waveshape Parameters 2.9 Correlations between the Parameters 2.10 Return-stroke Propagation Speed 2.11 Equivalent Impedance of the Lightning Channel 2.12 Mathematical Expressions for the Lightning Current Waveform 2.13 Summary 2.14 Future work Acknowledgments References 3. Lightning Return Stroke Models for Electromagnetic Field Calculations-Vernon Cooray 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Basic Concept of Current Propagation Models 3.3 Basic Concepts of Current Generation Models 3.3.1 Input Parameters of the CG Models and the Expression for the Current at any Height 3.3.2 Evaluate r(z) given Ib(t), p(z) and v(z) 3.3.3 Evaluate p(z) given Ib(t), r(z) and v(z) 3.3.4 Evaluate v(z), given Ib(t), p(z) and r(z) 3.4 Basic Concepts of Current Dissipation Models 3.4.1 Input Parameters of the CD Models 3.4.2 The Connection between the Channel Base Current (or Injected Current) and the Corona Current 3.5 Generalization of any Model to Current Generation or Current Dissipation Type 3.6 Current Propagation Models as a Special Case of Current Dissipation Models 3.7 Physical Basis of CD and CG Models and a Return Stroke Model based on their Combination 3.8 Electromagnetic Fields from Lightning Return Strokes 3.9 Calculation of Lightning Return Stroke Electromagnetic Fields over Ground 3.10 Final Comments and Conclusions References 4. Lightning Geolocation Information for Power System Analyses-Wolfgang Schulz and Amitabh Nag 4.1 Introduction to Ground Flash Density Calculation 4.2 Standards and Techniques Recommended by the IEC 62858 4.2.1 Ground Flash Density from LLS 4.2.2 Ground Strike Point Density 4.3 Lightning Locating Systems 4.3.1 Lightning Geolocation Techniques 4.3.2 Estimation of Peak Currents from Measured Electromagnetic Fields 4.3.3 Modern Precision Lightning Locating Systems 4.3.4 Modern Long-range Lightning Locating Systems 4.3.5 Validation of LLS Performance Characteristics using Ground-truth-data References 5. Lightning Attachment to Overhead Power Lines-Pantelis N. Mikropoulos, Jinliang He and Marina Bernardi 5.1 Lightning Attachment 5.2 Lightning Attachment Models 5.2.1 Electrogeometric Models 5.2.2 Leader Propagation Models 5.3 Lightning Incidence due to Direct Lightning Strokes 5.3.1 Definitions and Terminology 5.3.2 Lightning Stroke Collection Rate of Shield Wire(s) 5.3.3 Lightning Stroke Collection Rate of Phase Conductors (Shielding Failure Rate) 5.3.4 Concluding Remarks on Lightning Incidence due to Direct Lightning Strokes References 6. Field-to-transmission Line Coupling Models-Vernon Cooray, Carlo Alberto Nucci, Alexandre Piantini, Farhad Rachidi and Marcos Rubinstein 6.1 Introduction (TL Approximation, QS Approximation, and Full-wave Approach) 6.2 Field-to-transmission Line Coupling Models for Overhead Lines 6.2.1 Derivation of the Generalized Telegrapher’s equations for the Model of Taylor et al. 6.2.2 Equivalent Circuit 6.2.3 The Model of Agrawal, Price, and Gurbaxani 6.2.4 The Rachidi Model 6.2.5 Rusck/modified Rusck Model 6.2.6 Finite Ground and Medium Conductivity 6.2.7 Multiconductor Lines 6.2.8 Equivalence of the Coupling Models 6.2.9 Source Terms in Field-to-transmission Line Coupling Models 6.3 Field-to-transmission Coupling Models for Buried Cables 6.3.1 Preliminary Remarks 6.3.2 Calculation of the Lightning Electric Field under the Ground 6.3.3 Coupling to Buried Cables 6.4 Coupling Equations in Time Domain 6.5 Experimental Validation References 7. Lightning Response of Grounding Electrodes-Silverio Visacro 7.1 Basic Concepts 7.1.1 Characterizing Grounding Systems 7.1.2 Simplified Representation of Grounding System by Equivalent Circuits 7.2 The Frequency Response of Grounding systems: A Qualitative Approach 7.2.1 Introduction 7.2.2 The Harmonic Impedance 7.2.3 The Low-frequency Resistance 7.2.4 Propagation Effects 7.2.5 The Frequency Dependence of Soil Resistivity and Permittivity 7.3 The Impulse Response of Grounding Electrodes 7.3.1 Fundamental Aspects of the Impulse Response of Electrodes and Impulse Grounding Impedance 7.3.2 Attenuation of impulsive currents propagating along electrodes and effective length 7.3.3 The Impulse Coefficient 7.3.4 Soil Ionization Effect 7.4 Response of Grounding Electrodes Subjected to Lightning Currents 7.4.1 Introduction 7.4.2 Characteristics of Return Stroke Currents 7.4.3 Lightning Response of Grounding Electrodes 7.4.4 Effective Length of Electrodes for Lightning Currents 7.4.5 Remarks on the Frequency Dependence and Soil Ionization Effects 7.5 Representation of Grounding Systems in LightninG Protection Studies 7.5.1 Introduction 7.5.2 Using ZP as a Concise Representation of Grounding Electrodes Subject to Lightning Currents 7.5.3 When using ZP to Represent the Grounding System: Applications 7.5.4 How to Determine the Impulse Impedance References 8. Surge-protective Devices-Georgij V. Podporkin, Martin Wetter and Holger Heckler 8.1 Common Definitions and General Function Principle of SPDs used in HV, MV and LV Systems 8.1.1 Common definitions 8.1.2 General Function Principle 8.2 SPDs used in Transmission and Distribution (HV and MV) Overhead Lines 8.2.1 Metal Oxide Arresters 8.2.2 Multi-chamber Arresters 8.2.3 Multi-chamber Insulator Arresters 8.2.4 Arc-quenching Tests 8.3 SPDs for LV Power Systems 8.3.1 Terms and Definitions 8.3.2 Standards 8.3.3 Introduction to Surge Protection for LV Power Systems 8.3.4 Multi-stage Surge Protection Schemes 8.3.5 Lightning Protection Zones 8.3.6 Types of SPDs 8.3.7 Surge-protective Components 8.3.8 Series and Parallel Connection of Surge-protective Components 8.3.9 Connection Types of SPDs 8.3.10 Inspection and Field-testing of SPDs 8.3.11 Test Generators and Test Facilities for Type Testing 8.3.12 Approvals from Certified Bodies References 9. Modelling of Power Transmission Line Components-Alberto De Conti and Fernando H. Silveira 9.1 Transmission Lines 9.1.1 Transmission Line Equations 9.1.2 Calculation of per-unit-length Parameters 9.1.3 Frequency-domain Solution of the Transmission Line Equations 9.1.4 Time-domain Solution of the Transmission Line Equations 9.2 Transmission Towers 9.2.1 Overview 9.2.2 Travelling Wave Analysis of a Lightning Strike to a Tower 9.2.3 Tower Models 9.2.4 Example 9.2.5 Discussion 9.3 Grounding 9.3.1 Overview 9.3.2 Lumped-circuit Representation 9.3.3 Distributed-circuit Representation 9.3.4 N-port Linear Circuit Model based on Rational Approximations 9.4 Insulator strings 9.4.1 Introduction 9.4.2 Flashover models 9.4.3 Final remarks 9.5 Surge arresters 9.5.1 Introduction 9.5.2 Conventional model 9.5.3 IEEE model 9.5.4 Pinceti–Giannettoni model 9.6 Summary References 10. Modelling of Power Distribution Components-Alexandre Piantini, Miltom Shigihara and Acacio Silva Neto 10.1 Typical Network Configurations 10.1.1 MV Networks 10.1.2 LV Networks 10.2 Modelling of Distribution System Components 10.2.1 Poles 10.2.2 Distribution Transformers 10.2.3 Insulators 10.2.4 Surge Arresters and LV SPDs 10.2.5 Grounding 10.2.6 Loads 10.3 Concluding Remarks References Index