Risk Assessment for Environmental Health

Description

Understanding risk to humans is one of the most important problems in environmental public health. Risk assessment is constantly changing with the advent of new exposure assessment tools, more sophisticated models, and a better understanding of disease processes. Risk assessment is also gaining greater acceptance in the developing world where major environmental problems exist. Developed in partnership with the Association of Schools of Public Health, this comprehensive text offers a thorough survey of risk assessment, management, and communications as these practices apply to public health. Key Features Provides a practical overview of environmental risk assessment and its application by discussing the process and providing case studies and examples Focuses on tools and approaches used for humans in an environment involving potential chemical hazards Fully updated, the first part introduces the underlying principles and techniques of the field, and the second examines case studies in terms of different risk assessment scenarios Risk assessment is a core requirement for the MPH degree in environmental health Useful “stories” suitable for case studies Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Table of Contents List of Boxes Foreword Preface Editors Contributors Chapter 1: Introduction to Risk Assessment Literatures Cited Chapter 2: The Risk Assessment–Risk Management Paradigm Definition of Risk Historical Perspectives The Red Book The Objectives of Risk Assessment: Statutes and Programs Biological End Points A Framework for Regulatory Decision-Making Adding Context for Risk Assessments The Risk Commission Special Challenges for Risk Assessment of Chemicals Data and Testing Extrapolation Variation and Uncertainty Emerging Areas in Chemical Risk Assessment Contributions from All Public Health Sciences to Eco-Genetics and Risk Assessment Risk Management–Risk Communication Approaches (See Chapter 17) Thought Questions Note References Chapter 3: Risk Assessment and Regulatory Decision-Making in Environmental Health Introduction Food Constituents and Contaminants Food Safety History: Origins of Federal Food Laws A Brief Summary of Food Safety Risk Assessment The Modern Food Supply Food Additives: The Example of Non-nutritive Sweeteners GRAS Substances Veterinary Drug Residues Substances Formed by Processing Crop Protection Chemicals Food Contaminants of Industrial Origin – The Organics Heavy Metals – Food Contaminants of Industrial and Natural Origin Food Allergies and Intolerances Mycotoxins Microbial Pathogens Genetically Modified Organisms, Agricultural Biotechnology, and Food Safety Future Directions References Chapter 4: Exposure Assessment: The Ways We Measure Exposure and Its Application to Risk Assessment Introduction Basic Concepts and Key Components of Exposure Assessment Exposure Exposure Assessment Dose Role of Exposure Assessment in Risk Assessment Overview of the Exposure Assessment Process Step 1. Planning, Scoping, and Problem Formulation Step 2. Exposure Setting Characterization Step 3. Exposure Pathway Identification Step 4. Exposure Quantification Step 5. Uncertainty Assessment and Exposure Assessment Summary Approaches in Assessing and Quantifying the Exposure Direct Measurements Point-of-Contact Method Indirect Estimation – Scenario Evaluation Exposure Reconstruction – Biomonitoring and Reverse Dosimetry Apply Exposure Assessment to Estimate Risk References Chapter 5: Biological Monitoring of Exposure to Environmental Chemicals throughout the Life Stages: Requirements and Issues to Consider for Birth Cohort Studies Introduction Exposure Assessment Methods and Their Uses Questionnaires and Ecologic Measures Direct Environmental Measurements Biological Monitoring or Biomonitoring Exposure Modeling Biomonitoring and the Toxicokinetic Process of Environmental Chemicals The General Behavior of Chemicals in the Body Behavior of Specific Chemical Classes in the Body Assessing Exposure Throughout the Life Cycle Biological Matrices for Exposure Assessment Blood or Blood Products (i.e., Plasma or Serum) Urine Breast Milk and Adipose Tissue Alternative Matrices Exposure Measurement Considerations Biomolecular Adducts Sampling Time Frame Collecting Samples from Infants and Children Temporal Variability in Urine and Blood Samples Chemical Analysis Methods Organic Chemicals Heavy Metals and Metalloids Measurement Method Specificity and Sensitivity Requirements Quality Assurance and Control Conclusion Thought Questions Literature Cited References Chapter 6: Role of Epidemiology in Environmental Health Research Definition of Environmental Epidemiology How Epidemiology Addresses Environmental Health Problems Spatial Analysis in Environmental Epidemiology Biomarkers in Environmental Epidemiology Addressing Environmental Health Effects of Disasters The Exposome Conclusions Appendix References Chapter 7: Toxicological Basis for Risk Assessment References and Further Reading Chapter 8: The Application of Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK) Modeling to Risk Assessment Introduction: The Need for PBPK Modeling in Risk Assessment What Is PBPK? Differences between Classical Pharmacokinetic Models and PBPK Models Conceptual Model: Graphical Representation Mathematical Model: Mass Balance Differential Equations A Priori Prediction vs. Curve Fitting Biological Relevance How Does a PBPK Model Work? PBPK Modeling Data Requirements for PBPK Modeling Data Sets Used for Model Building and Model Validation Available Software Comparison Explanation of an Example of Computer Code for a PBPK Model in Berkeley Madonna Numerical Integration Sensitivity and Uncertainty Sensitivity Analysis Uncertainty Analysis PBPK Models for Chemical Interactions (Multiple Chemical Interactive PBPK Models) in Chemical Mixtures An Example of Application of PBPK Modeling in Dichloromethane Risk Assessment and Its Recent Development in Bayesian Population Approach The Potential Applications of AI to PBPK Modeling Acknowledgments References Chapter 9: Adverse Outcomes Pathways (AOPs) Introduction to Adverse Outcome Pathways Basic Principles for the Development and Assessment of AOPs Application of AOPs to Environmental Health Risk Assessment Future Directions and Challenges Literature Cited Chapter 10: Epigenetics in Risk Assessment Developmental Origins and Critical Periods of Epigenetic Effects Interpreting Epigenetic Variation and Its Relation to the Environment Assessing Epigenetics Applying Epigenetics in Risk Assessment Challenges and Opportunities in Using Epigenetics in Risk Assessment Literature Cited Chapter 11: Probabilistic Models for Characterizing Aggregate and Cumulative Risk Introduction Aggregate and Cumulative Risks Basic Risk Assessment Equations for Cancer and Noncancer Assessments Aggregate Assessment of Exposure and Risk Cumulative Assessment of Exposure and Risk Characterizing Aggregate and Cumulative Risks Measurement Studies Modeling Studies Probabilistic Models for Characterizing Aggregate and Cumulative Risks Probability and Probability Distributions Probability and Risk Assessment Common Probability Distributions in Risk Assessment Probabilistic Models for Exposure and Risk Assessment Scoping for Probabilistic Modeling Fundamental Approach for Probabilistic Modeling Critical Issues in Probabilistic Modeling Thought Questions Disclaimers References Chapter 12: Occupational Risk Assessment Background Acute Fatal and Nonfatal Injuries Occupational Disease Occupational Exposures Assessing and Managing Workplace Risks: NIOSH, OSHA, and EPA NIOSH OSHA Role of the EPA in Occupational Risk Management Overview of Occupational Risk Assessment Methodology and Policy Court Decisions Affecting Risk Assessment The Mechanics of Occupational Risk Assessment Dose-Response Analysis Case Study: Methylene Chloride Control of Hazards Elimination Substitution Engineering Controls Administrative Controls Personal Protective Equipment The Evolution of Industrial Hygiene and the Role of New Professionals Emerging Hazards Nanotechnology Impact of Climate on Workers New Industrial Processes Exposure to Mixtures Technological Change Thought Questions Disclaimers References Chapter 13: Children’s Environmental Health Risk Assessment Introduction Children’s Health in Risk Assessment Hazard Identification Toxicokinetics Toxicodynamics Dose Response Exposure Assessment Physiological Rates Activity Patterns Risk Characterization Thought Questions: Phthalates and Children Web Resources Literature Cited Chapter 14: Addressing the Limits of Risk Assessment by Focusing on Safer Alternatives Risk Assessment for Environmental Health Introduction Limits of the Risk-Based Approach Overview Limits of Risk Assessment as a Tool Challenges When Integrated into Policy Decision-Making Addressing the Limits of Risk Assessment From a Risk Focus to One Based on Safer Solutions Defining Alternatives Assessment History of Alternatives Assessment Frameworks for Alternatives Assessment and Core Components Alternatives Assessment Frameworks Alternatives Assessment Components Hazard Assessment Hazard Screening Full Hazard Assessment Methods and Tools Comparative Exposure Assessment Other Life Cycle Impact Considerations Research Gaps in Alternatives Assessment – a Role for Risk Assessors Data Gaps in Hazard Assessment NAMS in Alternatives Assessment Addressing Uncertainty in NAMs and IATAs Reducing Type I Uncertainties Related to the Input Data Used Reducing Type 2 Uncertainties Related to Extrapolations Made Example Uncertainty Analyses for Two Major Types of Uncertainties: Cyrene TM (CAS#53716-82-8) Incorporating Toxicological Data and Exposure Information into the Design of Safer Alternatives Conclusion Additional Resources References Literature Cited Chapter 15: How European Countries Approach Regulatory Risk Assessment Introduction Regulation of Hazardous Chemicals The Elements of the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) Regulation Registration Occupational Safety Rules Joint Registration of Same Substances Testing and Assessment Requirements Evaluation Examination of the Testing Proposals The Compliance Check Substance Evaluation Authorization Restriction Allocation of Responsibilities and Administration of REACH Status and Function of ECHA Role of the European Commission Role of Member States Downstream Users Submission of the Notification Documents and Decisions Cosmetics Medicinal Products for Human and Veterinary Use Medical Devices General Requirements for Risk Assessment Selection of a Point of Departure Extrapolation to Lower Risk Levels Note Further Reading Chapter 16: Envirome Disorganization and Ecological Riskscapes: The Algal Bloom Epitome Ecosystem Risk: Ecology-Environment Nexus Ocean Health: Algal Bloom as Epitome of Ecosystem Health On Phytoplankton and Algal Blooms: A Two-Faced Coin Ocean Viruses, Algal Blooms, Carbon Cycling, and Climate Risk Land-Ocean Interface, Carbon Dynamic Transition, and Eco-hydrologic Restoration Systemic Risk Quantification: Complex Networks and Predictions Geospatial Probabilistic Risk Assessment Optimal Information Flow Florida Bay Case Study Planetary Health via Ecosystem Science and Engineering Ecosystem Portfolio Risk Management Synopsis and Perspectives Acknowledgments Literature Cited Chapter 17: Risk Communication The Relationship between Risk Communication, Risk Assessment, and Risk-Management Decision-Making Current and Evolving Risk Communication Approaches Legal and Regulatory Considerations What Is Risk Communication? Typology of Risk Communication The Purpose(s) of Risk Communication Risk Communication and Stakeholder Involvement Audience and Stakeholder Considerations Distinctions between Lay and Expert Opinions NRC’s Committee on Risk Characterization Principles of Effective Risk Communication Goals and Objectives Audiences and Concerns Understanding Risk Perception and the Importance of Establishing Trust and Credibility Issues in Explaining Risk and Designing Messages Dealing with Uncertainty Risk Comparisons Thought Questions References Index