Physical Geology

Description

Physical Geology, 13th edition, is the latest refinement of a classic introductory text that has helped countless students learn basic physical geology concepts for over 25 years. Students taking introductory physical geology to fulfill a science elective, as well as those contemplating a career in geology, will appreciate the accessible writing style and depth of coverage in Physical Geology. Hundreds of carefully rendered illustrations and accompanying photographs correlate perfectly with the chapter descriptions to help readers quickly grasp new geologic concepts. Numerous chapter learning tools and a website further assist students in their study of physical geology. Title Contents 1 Introducing Geology, the Essentials of Plate Tectonics, and Other Important Concepts Who Needs Geology? Supplying Things We Need Protecting the Environment Avoiding Geologic Hazards Understanding Our Surroundings Earth Systems An Overview of Physical Geology—Important Concepts Internal Processes: How the Earth’s Internal Heat Engine Works Earth’s Interior The Theory of Plate Tectonics Divergent Boundaries Convergent Boundaries Transform Boundaries Surficial Processes: The Earth’s External Heat Engine Geologic Time SUMMARY 2 Atoms, Elements, and Minerals Atoms and Elements Ions and Bonding Crystalline Structures The Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron Nonsilicate Minerals Variations in Mineral Structures and Compositions The Physical Properties of Minerals Color Streak Luster Hardness External Crystal Form Cleavage Fracture Specific Gravity Special Properties Chemical Tests The Many Conditions of Mineral Formation SUMMARY Minerals Introduction Minerals and Rocks 3 Igneous Rocks, Intrusive Activity, and the Origin of Igneous Rocks The Rock Cycle A Plate Tectonic Example Igneous Rocks Igneous Rock Textures Identification of Igneous Rocks Chemistry of Igneous Rocks Intrusive Bodies Shallow Intrusive Structures Intrusives That Crystallize at Depth Abundance and Distribution of Plutonic Rocks How Magma Forms Heat for Melting Rock The Geothermal Gradient and Partial Melting Decompression Melting Addition of Water How Magmas of Different Compositions Evolve Sequence of Crystallization and Melting Differentiation Partial Melting Assimilation Mixing of Magmas Explaining Igneous Activity by Plate Tectonics Igneous Processes at Divergent Boundaries Intraplate Igneous Activity Igneous Processes at Convergent Boundaries SUMMARY 4 Volcanism and Extrusive Rocks Pyroclastic Debris and Lava Flows Living with Volcanoes Supernatural Beliefs The Growth of an Island Geothermal Energy Effect on Climate Volcanic Catastrophes Eruptive Violence and Physical Characteristics of Lava Extrusive Rocks and Gases Scientific Investigation of Volcanism Gases Extrusive Rocks Composition Extrusive Textures Types of Volcanoes Shield Volcanoes Cinder Cones Composite Volcanoes Volcanic Domes Lava Floods Submarine Eruptions Pillow Basalts SUMMARY 5 Weathering and Soil Weathering, Erosion, and Transportation Weathering and Earth Systems Atmosphere Hydrosphere Biosphere How Weathering changes Rocks Effects of Weathering Mechanical Weathering Pressure Release Frost Action Other Processes Chemical Weathering Role of Oxygen Role of Acids Solution Weathering Chemical Weathering of Feldspar Chemical Weathering of Other Minerals Weathering Products Factors Affecting Weathering Soil Soil Horizons Factors Affecting Soil Formation Soil Erosion Soil Classification SUMMARY 6 Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks Sediment Transportation Deposition Preservation Lithification Types of Sedimentary Rocks Detrital Rocks Breccia and Conglomerate Sandstone The Fine-Grained Rocks Chemical Sedimentary Rocks Carbonate Rocks Chert Evaporites Organic Sedimentary Rocks Coal The Origin of Oil and Gas Sedimentary Structures Fossils Formations Interpretation of Sedimentary Rocks Source Area Environment of Deposition Transgression and Regression Plate Tectonics and Sedimentary Rocks SUMMARY 7 Metamorphism, and Hydrothermal 7Metamorphic Rocks, Rocks Introduction Factors Controlling the Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks Composition of the Parent Rock Temperature Pressure Fluids Time Classification of Metamorphic Rocks Nonfoliated Rocks Foliated Rocks Types of Metamorphism Contact Metamorphism Regional Metamorphism Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism Foliation and Plate Tectonics Pressure-Temperature Regimes Hydrothermal Processes Hydrothermal Activity at Divergent Plate Boundaries Water at Convergent Boundaries Metasomatism Hydrothermal Rocks and Minerals SUMMARY 8 Time and Geology The Key to the Past Relative Time Principles Used to Determine Relative 8 Age Unconformities Correlation The Standard Geologic Time Scale Numerical Age Isotopic Dating Uses of Isotopic Dating Combining Relative and Numerical Ages Age of the Earth Comprehending Geologic Time SUMMARY 9 Mass Wasting Introduction to Mass Wasting Classification of Mass Wasting 9 Rate of Movement Type of Material Type of Movement Controlling Factors in Mass Wasting Gravity Water Triggers Common Types of Mass Wasting Creep Flow Rockfalls and Rockslides Underwater Landslides Preventing Landslides Preventing Mass Wasting of Soil Preventing Rockfalls and Rockslides on Highways SUMMARY 10 Streams and Floods Earth Systems—The Hydrologic Cycle Running Water Drainage Basins Drainage Patterns Factors Affecting Stream Erosion and Deposition Velocity Gradient Channel Shape and Roughness Discharge Stream Erosion Stream Transportationof Sediment Stream Deposition Bars Braided Streams Meandering Streams and Point Bars Flood Plains Deltas Alluvial Fans Stream Valley Development Downcutting and Base Level The Concept of a Graded Stream Lateral Erosion Headward Erosion Stream Terraces Incised Meanders Flooding Urban Flooding Flash Floods Controlling Floods The Midwest Floods of 1993 and 2008 SUMMARY 11 Ground Water Introduction Porosity and Permeability The Water Table The Movement of Ground Water Aquifers Wells Springs and Streams Contamination of Ground Water Balancing Withdrawal and Recharge Effects of Groundwater Action Caves, Sinkholes, and Karst Topography Other Effects Hot Water Underground Geothermal Energy SUMMARY 12 Glaciers and Glaciation Introduction GLACIERS—WHERE THEY ARE,HOW THEY FORM AND MOVE Distribution of Glaciers Types of Glaciers Formation and Growth of Glaciers Movement of Valley Glaciers Movement of Ice Sheets Glacial Erosion Erosional Landscapes Associated with Alpine Glaciation Erosional Landscapes Associated with Continental Glaciation Glacial Deposition Moraines Outwash Glacial Lakes and Varves PAST GLACIATION Direct Effects of Past Glaciation in North America Indirect Effects of Past Glaciation Evidence for Older Glaciation SUMMARY 13 Deserts and Wind Action Distribution of Deserts Some Characteristics of Deserts Desert Features in the Southwestern United States Wind Action Wind Erosion and Transportation Wind Deposition SUMMARY 14 Waves, Beaches, and Coasts Introduction Water Waves Surf Near-Shore Circulation Wave Refraction Longshore Currents Rip Currents Beaches Longshore Drift of Sediment Human Interference with Sand Drift Sources of Sand on Beaches Coasts and Coastal Features Erosional Coasts Depositional Coasts Drowned Coasts Uplifted Coasts The Biosphere and Coasts SUMMARY 15 Geologic Structures Tectonic Forces at Work Stress and Strain in the 15 Lithosphere Earth’s How Do Rocks Behave When Stressed? Structures As a Record of the Geologic Past Geologic Maps and Field Methods Folds Geometry of Folds Further Description of Folds Fractures In Rock Joints Faults SUMMARY 16 Earthquakes Causes of Earthquakes Seismic Waves Body Waves Surface Waves Locating and Measuring Earthquakes Determining the Location of an Earthquake Measuring the Size of an Earthquake Location and Size of Earthquakes in the United States Effects of Earthquakes Tsunami World Distribution of Earthquakes First-Motion Studies of Earthquakes Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics Earthquakes at Plate Boundaries Subduction Angle Earthquake Prediction and Seismic Risk SUMMARY 17 Earth’s Interior and Geophysical Properties Introduction Evidence from Seismic Waves Earth’s Internal Structure The Crust The Mantle The Core Isostasy Gravity Measurements Earth’s Magnetic Field Magnetic Reversals Magnetic Anomalies Heat within the Earth Geothermal Gradient Heat Flow SUMMARY 18 The Sea Floor Origin of the Ocean Methods of Studying the Sea Floor Features of the Sea Floor Continental Shelves and Continental Slopes Submarine Canyons Turbidity Currents Passive Continental Margins The Continental Rise Abyssal Plains Active Continental Margins Oceanic Trenches Mid-Oceanic RidgeS Geologic Activity at the Ridges Biologic Activity at the Ridges Fracture Zones Seamounts, Guyots, and Aseismic Ridges Reefs Sediments of the Sea Floor Oceanic Crust and Ophiolites The Age of the Sea Floor The Sea Floor and Plate Tectonics SUMMARY 19 Plate Tectonics The Early Case for Continental Drift Skepticism about Continental Drift Paleomagnetism and the Revival of Continental Drift Recent Evidence for Continental Drift History of Continental Positions Seafloor Spreading Hess’s Driving Force Explanations Plates and Plate Motion How Do We Know that Plates Move? Marine Magnetic Anomalies Another Test: Fracture Zones and Transform Faults Measuring Plate Motion Directly Divergent Plate Boundaries Transform Boundaries Convergent Plate Boundaries Ocean-Ocean Convergence Ocean-Continent Convergence Continent-Continent Convergence The Motion of Plate Boundaries Plate Size The Attractiveness of Plate Tectonics What Causes Plate Motions? Mantle Convection Ridge Push Slab Pull Trench Suction Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots A Final Note SUMMARY 20 Mountain Belts and the Continental Crust Introduction Characteristics of Major Mountain Belts Size and Alignment Ages of Mountain Belts and Continents Thickness and Characteristics of Rock Layers Patterns of Folding and Faulting Metamorphism and Plutonism Normal Faulting Thickness and Density of Rocks Features of Active Mountain Ranges Evolution of Mountain Belts Orogenies and Plate Convergence Post-Orogenic Uplift and Block-Faulting The Growth of Continents Displaced Terranes SUMMARY 21 Resources Introduction Reserves and Resources Energy Resources Nonrenewable Energy Resources Renewable Energy Sources Metallic Resources Ores Formed by Igneous Processes Ores Formed by Surface Processes Mining Nonmetallic Resources Construction Materials Fertilizers and Evaporites Other Nonmetallics The Human Perspective SUMMARY 22 The Earth’s Companions The Earth in Space The Sun The Solar System The Milky Way and the Universe Origin of the Planets The Solar Nebula Formation of the Planets Formation of Moons Final Stages of Planet Formation Formation of Atmospheres Other Planetary Systems Portraits of the Planets Our Moon Mercury Venus Mars Why Are the Terrestrial Planets So Different? Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto and the Ice Dwarves Minor Objects of the Solar System Meteors and Meteorites Meteorites Asteroids Comets Giant Impacts Giant Meteor Impacts SUMMARY Appendices A–G Glossary Index