Physics and Technology for Engineers: Understanding Materials and Sustainability

Description

This textbook covers the physics of engineering materials and the latest technologies used in modern engineering projects. It has been designed for use as a reference book and course material for undergraduate engineering students. The book was born out of the need for a comprehensive, balanced, and up-to-date guide for teaching physics to beginning undergraduate engineering students and creating examination papers for technical boards and institutes. The text is divided into ten chapters, each with its specific objectives and features. The topics covered include the classification of engineering materials, atomic structure, electrical and magnetic behavior of solids, quantum mechanics, laser technology, nanomaterials, and sustainable development. Authored by a physicist with over 40 years of teaching experience, this richly-illustrated textbook features an abundance of self-assessment questions, solved examples, and a variety of chapter-end questions with detailed answers. The textbook starts from the very basics and is developed to the desired level, thus making it ideal as standalone course material. Preface Acknowledgements Contents 1 Engineering Materials, Atomic Structure and Bounding 1.1 Classification of Condensed Matter 1.1.1 Metals 1.1.2 Ceramics 1.1.3 Polymers 1.1.4 Composites 1.2 Atomic Structure 1.2.1 Elements of Atomic Structure 1.2.2 Arrangement of Electrons in Atom 1.2.3 Shape and Orientation of Orbitals 1.2.4 Electron Energy Level Diagram 1.2.5 Electron Configuration of Elements 1.2.6 Aufbau or Building-Up Principle 1.2.7 Representing Electron Configuration 1.2.8 Valence Shell 1.2.9 Some Anomalous Electron Configurations 1.3 Bonds Between Atoms and Ions 1.3.1 Electronegativity 1.3.2 The Octet Rule 1.3.3 Classification of Bonding 2 Electrical Behaviour of Condensed Matter 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Electron Energy Band Theory 2.3 Insulators 2.4 Semiconductors 2.4.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors 2.4.2 Covalent Band Picture of Intrinsic Semiconductor 2.4.3 Doped or Extrinsic Semiconductors 2.4.4 Doping Technology 2.4.5 n and p Type Semiconductors 2.4.6 Compensated Semiconductor 2.4.7 Degenerate and Non-degenerate Semiconductors 2.4.8 Direct and Indirect Semiconductor 2.4.9 Compound Semiconductors 2.4.10 Current Flow in Semiconductor 2.4.11 Temperature Dependence of Semiconductor Resistivity 2.4.12 Theoretical Calculation of Carrier Concentration in a Semiconductor 2.4.13 Hall Effect 2.4.14 p–n Junction 2.4.15 Some Formulations 2.5 Conductors 2.5.1 Semimetals and Half Metals 2.6 Superconductor 2.6.1 Background 2.6.2 BCS Theory of Superconductivity 3 Magnetic Materials 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Electric Current and Magnetic Field 3.3 Magnetic Dipole Moment 3.4 Magnetic Moment of a Charged Particle Moving in a Circular Orbit 3.4.1 Classical to Quantum Mechanics 3.5 Magnetic (Dipole) Moment of Electron 3.6 Magnetic Behaviour of Solids 3.6.1 Magnetic Induction B and Magnetic Field H 3.7 Classification of Magnetic Materials 3.7.1 Diamagnetic Materials 3.7.2 Paramagnetic Materials 3.7.3 Ferromagnetic Materials 3.7.4 Antiferromagnetic and Ferrimagnetic Materials 3.8 Permanent Magnetic Materials 4 X-rays, Dual Nature of Matter, Failure of Classical Physics and Success of Quantum Approach 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Discovery, Production and Properties of X-rays 4.2.1 Production of X-rays 4.2.2 Continuous X-rays 4.2.3 Characteristic X-rays 4.2.4 Mosley’s Law 4.2.5 X-ray Diffraction 4.2.6 Some Application of X-rays 4.3 Dual Nature of Matter 4.3.1 Davisson and Germer Experiment 4.4 Some Examples of the Failures of Classical Approach and Success of Quantum Approach 4.4.1 Stability of the Atom and the Nature of Atomic Spectra 4.4.2 Photoelectric Effect 4.4.3 Quantum Theory of Photoelectric Effect 4.4.4 Work Function 4.4.5 Residual Atom after the Emission of Photoelectron 4.5 Blackbody Radiations and Their Energy Distribution 4.5.1 Wien’s Displacement Law 4.5.2 Failure of Wien’s Distribution Law 4.5.3 Rayleigh and Jean’s Distribution Law 4.5.4 Failure of Rayleigh–Jeans Distribution 4.6 Quantum Theory of Blackbody Radiations 4.7 Compton Scattering of Gamma Rays 4.7.1 Compton Wavelength 4.7.2 Compton Scattering by the Whole Atom 4.7.3 Photon Interactions with Matter 4.7.4 Some Applications of Compton Scattering 4.8 Specific Heat of Solids 4.8.1 Dulong–Petit Law 4.8.2 Obtaining Dulong–Petit Law on the Basis of Classical Physics 4.8.3 Problems with Dulong–Petit Law 4.9 Quantum Approach to Atomic Specific Heat of Solids 4.9.1 Einstein’s Theory for Specific Heat of Solids 4.9.2 Investigating the Temperature Dependence of Einstein’s Equation 4.9.3 Drawbacks of Einstein’s Model 4.9.4 Debye Theory of Atomic Specific Heat 4.9.5 Debye Temperature θD 5 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Postulates of Quantum Mechanics 5.2.1 What Does Wavefunction Represent? 5.2.2 Properties of the Acceptable Wavefunction 5.3 Observables and Operators 5.4 Time Evolution of a Quantum Mechanical System 5.4.1 Schrodinger Time-Dependent Equation 5.4.2 Some Properties of Schrodinger Equation 5.5 Time-Independent Schrodinger Equation 5.6 About Operators 5.6.1 Null Operator (O) 5.6.2 Unity or Identity Operator () 5.6.3 Linear Operator 5.6.4 Hermitian Conjugate and Hermitian Operator 5.6.5 Anti-hermitian Operator 5.6.6 Inverse Operator ( - 1) 5.6.7 Unitary Operator () 5.6.8 Some Properties of Hermitian Operators 5.6.9 Algebra of Operators 5.6.10 Operators for Some Dynamical Variables 5.7 Measurement of a Dynamical Variable in Quantum Mechanics 5.7.1 Expectation Value of a Dynamic Variable 5.8 Some One-Dimensional Problems 5.8.1 Energy States: Bound and Scattering States 5.8.2 Quantum Mechanical Description of a Free Particle 5.8.3 Particle in a One-Dimensional Asymmetric Infinite Potential Well 5.8.4 Potential Barrier and Tunnelling 5.9 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 5.10 Correspondence Principle and Ehrenfest’s Theorem 6 Quantum Statistics 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Application of Quantum Statistics (Statistical Mechanics) to an Assembly of Non-interacting Particles 6.3 Energy Levels, Energy States, Degeneracy and Occupation Number 6.3.1 Distinguishable and Indistinguishable Particles 6.3.2 Macrostate 6.3.3 Microstates 6.3.4 Time Evolution of an Assembly 6.3.5 Postulate of Equal a Prior Probability of All Microstates 6.4 Quantum Statistical Probability of a Macrostate 6.4.1 System Properties and Average Occupation Number 6.5 The Bose–Einstein Statistical Distribution 6.6 The Fermi–Dirac Statistical Distribution 6.7 The Maxwell–Boltzmann Statistical Distribution 6.8 Relation Between Entropy and Thermodynamic Probability 6.9 The Distribution Function 7 Optical Fiber Communication 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Advantages of Optical Fiber Communication 7.3 Basics of Optical Fiber Communication 7.3.1 Optical Fiber Materials 7.3.2 Frequently Used Wavelengths in Optical Transmission 7.3.3 Principle of Total Internal Reflection 7.3.4 Types of Fibers 7.3.5 Rays Guided Through Fiber 7.3.6 Meridional and Skewed Rays 7.3.7 Acceptance Angle 7.3.8 Numerical Aperture (NA) 7.3.9 The V Parameter 7.3.10 Attenuation and Dispersion of Optical Signal 7.4 Components of Optical Fiber Network Link 7.5 Applications of Optical Fiber Transmission 8 Laser Technology and Its Applications 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Electromagnetic Radiations 8.3 Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Matter 8.4 Einstein Prediction of Stimulated Emission 8.5 Stimulated (or Induced) Emission of Photons 8.5.1 Population Inversion 8.5.2 Essential Requirements for Laser Action 8.5.3 Pumping 8.5.4 Three and Four Level Lasing Schemes 8.5.5 Optical Resonator or Laser Cavity 8.6 Special Characteristics of Laser Light 8.7 Classification of Laser Sources 8.7.1 Solid State Lasers 8.7.2 Dye (Liquid) Laser Source 8.7.3 Gas Laser Sources 8.7.4 Excimer Laser 8.7.5 Mode Locking 8.7.6 Q-Switching 8.8 Some Applications of Lasers 9 Nanomaterials 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Special Features of Nanomaterials 9.3 Technology Used for the Study of Nanostructures 9.4 Techniques of Producing Nanostructures 9.4.1 Bottom-Up Techniques 9.4.2 Top-Down Techniques of Fabricating Nanostructures 9.4.3 Carbon Nanotubes 10 Sustainability and Sustainable Energy Options 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Social Sustainability 10.3 Economical Sustainability 10.4 Environmental Sustainability 10.4.1 Atmosphere 10.4.2 Mechanism of Trapping Heat by Greenhouse Gases 10.4.3 Global Greenhouse Gas Emission by Human Activities 10.5 Global Warming 10.5.1 The Carbon Footprint 10.5.2 Reducing and Offsetting Carbon Footprints 10.6 Projections on Average Temperature Rise of 1.5 °C Above Pre-industrial Levels 10.7 United Nation’s Efforts 10.7.1 Outlook Scenarios: Computer Model-Based Scenarios Prepared by IEA 10.8 Sustainability of Land Mass 10.9 Sustainability of Water Bodies 10.9.1 Sustainability of River and Other Water Systems 10.10 Some Efforts for Improving the Sustainability of Environment 10.10.1 A Unique Fight Against Climate Change; the Ice Stupa or Artificial Glacier 10.11 Sustainable Energy 10.11.1 Units of Energy 10.11.2 Primary Energy 10.11.3 Global Energy Production, an Overview 10.11.4 Electricity: The Most Convenient Form of Energy 10.11.5 Cost of Electricity by Source: Cost Metrics 10.11.6 Energy Densities Associated with Prevalent Energy Sources 10.11.7 Problem with Present Energy Mix 10.12 Some Clean and Sustainable Sources 10.12.1 Hydrogen as an Alternative Source of Energy 10.13 Hydrogen Fuel Cell 10.14 Nuclear Energy 10.14.1 Drawbacks of Fission Reactor 10.14.2 Plus Points of Fission Reactor 10.14.3 Accelerator-Driven Energy Amplifier 10.15 Terrain Dependent Renewable Energy Sources 10.15.1 Geothermal Energy 10.15.2 Hydroelectric Energy 10.16 Wind Energy 10.17 Solar Energy 10.17.1 Solar Thermal 10.17.2 Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Technology 10.18 Energy from Ocean 10.18.1 Tidal Energy 10.18.2 Ocean Thermal Energy 10.19 Portable Sources of Sustainable Energy 10.19.1 Lithium-Ion Battery 10.19.2 Super Capacitor Index