Introduction To Modern Physics

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INTRODUCTION TO MODERN PHYSICS FOURTH EDITION......Page 1 HALF-TITLE......Page 2 INTERNATIONAL SERIES IN PURE AND APPLIED PHYSICS......Page 3 TITLE-PAGE......Page 4 COPYRIGHT......Page 5 PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION......Page 6 PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION......Page 8 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION......Page 10 CONTENTS......Page 14 INTRODUCTION......Page 20 4. Anaxagoras and Empedocles......Page 24 6. Aristotle......Page 25 9. From the Greeks to Copernicus......Page 28 10. The Copernican System......Page 30 11. Galileo Galilei......Page 31 12. Tycho Brahe and Kepler......Page 36 13. The Experimental Method Spreads......Page 38 14. Sir Isaac Newton......Page 40 16. Mechanics during the Eighteenth Century......Page 47 18. Light during the Eighteenth Century......Page 48 19. Electricity during the Eighteenth Century......Page 49 21. The Nineteenth Century in Physics......Page 51 22. Heat and Energy......Page 52 23. Light......Page 53 24. Electricity and Magnetism......Page 55 25. Michael Faraday......Page 57 26. Joseph Henry......Page 64 27. James Clerk Maxwell......Page 65 28. The Completion of Electromagnetic Theory......Page 69 29. Maxwell's Equations......Page 70 30. Energy and Momentum in the Electromagnetic Field......Page 72 31. Electromagnetic Waves......Page 74 32. Energy of Electromagnetic Waves......Page 76 33. Momentum of Electromagnetic Waves. Radiation Pressure......Page 77 34. Radiation Field of an Accelerated Point Charge......Page 79 35. Energy Radiated by an Accelerated Point Charge......Page 83 36. Electromagnetic Mass......Page 87 37. Discovery of the Photoelectric Effect......Page 90 38. A Problem......Page 91 39. Electricity in Matter......Page 93 40. The Zeeman Effect......Page 94 41. The Discovery of the Electron......Page 99 42. Electronic Magnitudes......Page 102 43. Photoelectrons......Page 104 45. Energy Distribution of Photoelectrons......Page 106 46. Relation between the Velocities of Photoelectrons and the Frequency of the Light......Page 109 47. Other Properties of Photoelectric Emission......Page 110 48. Source of the Photoelectric Energy......Page 111 49. The Photoelectric Effect and the Corpuscular Theory of Light......Page 113 50. Thermionic Emission......Page 115 51. Relation between Thermionic and Photoelectric Constant......Page 117 52. Velocities of Emission of Thermions......Page 118 53. Theories of Electrons in Metals......Page 119 54. Origin of Photoelectrons and Thermions......Page 122 55. Newtonian Relativity......Page 128 56. Relativity and the Propagation of Light......Page 130 57. The Michelson-Morley Experiment......Page 132 58. The New Relativity of Einstein......Page 136 59. Simultaneity and Time Order......Page 137 60. The Lorentz Transformation......Page 139 61. Contractions in Space and Time......Page 141 62. The Transformation of Velocities......Page 143 63. Relativistic Mechanics. The Variation of Mass......Page 145 64. Force and Kinetic Energy......Page 148 65. A Relation between Mass and Energy......Page 149 66. Relativity and Electromagnetism......Page 151 67. General Theory of Relativity......Page 154 68. Einstein's Law of Gravitation......Page 156 69. Thermal Radiation......Page 158 70. Some Fundamental Concepts and Definitions......Page 159 71. The Isothermal Enclosure and Black-body Radiation......Page 164 72. Pressure Due to Isotropic Radiation......Page 166 73. The Stefan-Boltzmann Law......Page 168 74. Reflection from a Moving Mirror......Page 171 75. Effect of an Adiabatic Expansion upon Black-body Radiation......Page 173 76. The Wien Displacement Law......Page 176 77. The Formula for Black-body Radiation......Page 177 78. Degrees of Freedom......Page 179 79. Relation between Energy per Degree of Freedom and the Temperature......Page 180 80. Degrees of Freedom in an Enclosure......Page 183 81. The Rayleigh-Jeans Formula......Page 188 82. Planck's Investigation of Black-body Radiation......Page 189 83. Distribution and Average Energy of Harmonic Oscillators in Thermal Equilibrium......Page 190 84. Planck's Quantum Hypothesis......Page 194 85. Planck's Radiation Law......Page 197 CHAPTER VI THE NUCLEAR ATOM AND THE ORIGIN OF SPECTRAL LINES......Page 203 86. Spectroscopic Units......Page 204 87. Early Search for Regularities in Spectra......Page 205 88. Spectral Series and Their Interrelations......Page 208 89. Further Relationships between Series. Spectral Terms......Page 212 90. Early Views on Atomic Structure......Page 214 91. The Scattering of Alpha Particles by Atoms......Page 216 92. Rutherford's Nuclear Atom......Page 218 93. The Bohr Theory of Atomic Hydrogen......Page 223 94. Quantum States of One Electron in an Atom......Page 226 95. Spectrum of a One-electron Atom......Page 229 96. The Spectrum of Atomic Hydrogen. Energy Levels and Spectral Series......Page 233 97. Ionized Helium......Page 235 98. Energy Levels and Series Relationships for Sodium......Page 237 99. Excitation and Ionization of Atoms by Electrons......Page 239 100. Absorption and Reemission of Radiation.......Page 243 101. The Boltzmann Distribution Law......Page 250 102. The Extension of Bohr's Theory......Page 252 103. Matter Waves......Page 254 104. Mechanics as Geometrical Optics of the Waves......Page 257 105. Refraction of Matter Waves......Page 258 106. Fermat's Principle and the Principle of Least Action......Page 261 107. The de Broglie Wave Length......Page 263 108. Experiments on Electron Waves......Page 267 109. Diffraction of Molecule Waves......Page 276 110. Schrodinger's Wave Equation......Page 278 111. Physical Significance of psi......Page 283 112. The Indeterminacy Principle......Page 286 113. Stationary or Quantum States......Page 288 114. The Harmonic Oscillator......Page 290 115. The One-electron Atom......Page 291 116. Emission and Absorption of Radiation......Page 299 117. Relativistic Effects and Electron Spin......Page 304 118. Theory of the Many-electron Atom......Page 307 119. Shells and Subshells......Page 310 120. Wave Mechanics of Many-electron Atoms.......Page 312 121. Atomic Numbers of the Elements......Page 317 122. Some Features of the Periodic Table......Page 318 123. The Static Atom......Page 321 124. Wave Mechanics and the Periodic Table: the First Two Periods......Page 322 125. Valence Bonds......Page 327 126. The Third Period of the Periodic Table......Page 330 127. The Fourth and Fifth Periods......Page 331 128. The Periodic Table Concluded......Page 333 129. Atomic and Molecular Spectra......Page 335 130. Total Angular Momentum and Its Selection Rules......Page 337 131. Alkali-type Spectra......Page 340 132. The Term Energies of the Alkali Metals......Page 345 133. Spin-orbit Effect for an Electron in a Central Field......Page 348 134. Fine Structure in Alkali-type Spectra......Page 354 135. Multiplet Levels for One-electron Atoms......Page 358 136. Fine Structure of Spectral Lines from One-electron Atoms......Page 361 137. LS or Russell-Saunders Coupling......Page 364 138. LS Multiplets......Page 373 139. Spacing of the LS Multiplet Levels......Page 375 140. The Arc Spectrum of Mercury......Page 376 141. Equivalent Electrons......Page 379 142. "jj" Coupling......Page 380 143. The Effect of a Magnetic Field on an Atom......Page 384 144. Classical Theory of the Magnetic Energy......Page 388 145. Zeeman Effect in a Huge Field......Page 392 146. Zeeman Effect in a Weak Field......Page 397 147. Zeeman Patterns of LS Multiplets in a Weak Field......Page 401 148. The Paschen-Back Effect......Page 405 149. The Stark Effect......Page 407 150. The Stern-Gerlach Experiment......Page 408 151. Isotope Structure and Hyperfine Structure......Page 410 152. The Breadth of Spectral Lines......Page 415 153. Molecular Spectra......Page 418 154. Rotation Spectra......Page 420 155. Vibration-rotation Spectra......Page 423 156. General Theory of Molecular Quantum States......Page 430 157. Electronic Bands......Page 434 158. The Raman Effect......Page 438 159. Variation of Specific Heats of Solids with Temperature......Page 443 160. Classical Theory of the Specific Heats of Solids......Page 445 161. Einstein's Theory of the Atomic Heats of Solids......Page 446 162. Characteristic Frequencies......Page 448 163. Debye's Theory of Atomic Heats......Page 451 164. Experimental Test of Debye's Equation......Page 454 165. Molecular Heats of Mixed Solids......Page 457 166. The Molecular Heat of Gases: Classical Theory......Page 458 167. Quantum Theory of the Specific Heat of Gases......Page 461 168. Comparison of the Theory with Observed Specific Heats......Page 466 169. Roentgen's Discovery......Page 470 170. Production and Measurement of X-Rays......Page 472 171. Classical Pulse Theory of X-rays......Page 474 172. The Scattering of X-rays......Page 476 173. Absorption and Fluorescence......Page 483 174. The Crystal Diffraction Grating......Page 487 175. The X-ray Spectrometer......Page 492 176. Bragg's Discovery of Monochromatic Characteristic Radiations......Page 496 177. Moseley's Law......Page 498 178. The Origin of X-ray Lines......Page 500 179. X-ray Energy Levels......Page 506 180. The Quantum Theory of X-ray Terms and Lines......Page 508 181. The Continuous X-ray Spectrum......Page 514 182. Intensity of the Continuous Spectrum......Page 518 183. The Absorption of X-rays......Page 520 184. The Photoelectric Effect for X-rays......Page 525 186. The Scattering of X-rays......Page 529 186. The Compton Scattering of X-rays......Page 533 187. The Refraction of X-rays......Page 541 188. Measurement of X-ray Wave Lengths by a Ruled Grating......Page 546 189. The Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation......Page 547 SOME RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN X-RAY SPECTROSCOPY......Page 549 190. Multiple Ionization of Inner Electron Shells......Page 550 191. X-ray Spectra and the Outer Part of the Atom......Page 555 192. X-ray Spectroscopy of Solids......Page 558 193. Positive Rays.......Page 561 194. The Mass Spectrograph......Page 564 196. The Discovery of Radioactivity......Page 572 197. The Radioactive Radiations......Page 573 198. The Alpha-rays......Page 574 199. Radioactive Transformations......Page 580 200. Gamma-ray Spectra......Page 584 201. Nuclear Energy Levels......Page 586 202. Beta-ray Spectra......Page 588 203. Observations on Individual Charged Particles......Page 590 204. Artificial Transmutation by Alpha Particles......Page 592 205. Discovery of the Neutron......Page 595 206. The Composition of Nuclei......Page 600 207. Nuclear Mass and Rest Energy......Page 602 208. The General Theory of Nuclear Binding......Page 607 209. Nuclear Forces and the Ratio of Mass Number to Atomic Number......Page 609 210. The Explanation of Natural Radioactivity......Page 613 211. Nuclear Quantum States......Page 615 212. Positrons......Page 617 213. The Discovery of Induced Radioactivity......Page 622 214. Artificial Transmutation by High-velocity Protons......Page 624 215. The Production of High-speed Ions......Page 628 216. Experiments with Neutrons......Page 634 217. Survey of Nuclear Reactions......Page 643 218. Indirect Measurement of Atomic Masses......Page 648 219. Exoergic and Endoergic Reactions......Page 649 220. Isotopic Reactions......Page 651 221. The Excitation of Gamma Rays......Page 652 222. Photodisintegration and Electron Disintegration......Page 656 223. Groups of Emitted Protons; and Alpha Resonances......Page 658 224. Neutron and alpha-ray Spectra......Page 660 225. Radioactive Decay by Electron Capture......Page 663 226. Alternative Reactions......Page 665 227. Fission of the Nucleus......Page 669 228. Early Work on Cosmic Rays......Page 678 229. The Measurement of Cosmic-ray Ionization......Page 681 230. The Altitude-depth Curve......Page 683 232. Motion of a Charged Particle in the Equatorial Plane of a Magnetic Dipole......Page 686 233. Motion of Charged Particles in the Magnetic Field of the Earth......Page 692 234. The Variation of Cosmic-ray Intensity with Latitude......Page 697 235. Observations on Single Cosmic-ray Particles......Page 700 236. Energy, Mass, and Specific Ionization of Charged Particles......Page 705 237. Showers and Bursts......Page 711 238. Theory of the Shower Phenomenon......Page 717 239. Neutrons, Protons, and Stars......Page 728 240. Mesons......Page 731 241. Properties of Mesons......Page 736 242. Mesons and Electrons in the Atmosphere......Page 741 243. Conclusion......Page 748 APPENDIX I ISOTOPIC CONSTITUTION OF THE ELEMENTS......Page 752 APPENDIX II THE PERIODIC TABLE......Page 757 APPENDIX III......Page 758 SOME USEFUL CONSTANTS AND RELATIONS......Page 761 INDEX......Page 762