Practical Civil Engineering

Description

The book provides primary information about civil engineering to both a civil and non-civil engineering audience in areas such as construction management, estate management, and building. Basic civil engineering topics like surveying, building materials, construction technology and management, concrete technology, steel structures, soil mechanics and foundations, water resources, transportation and environment engineering are explained in detail. Codal provisions of US, UK and India are included to cater to a global audience. Insights into techniques like modern surveying equipment and technologies, sustainable construction materials, and modern construction materials are also included. Key features: • Provides a concise presentation of theory and practice for all technical in civil engineering. • Contains detailed theory with lucid illustrations. • Focuses on the management aspects of a civil engineer's job. • Addresses contemporary issues such as permitting, globalization, sustainability, and emerging technologies. • Includes codal provisions of US, UK and India. The book is aimed at professionals and senior undergraduate students in civil engineering, non-specialist civil engineering audience Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Authors Chapter 1 Introduction to Civil Engineering 1.1 Scope of Civil Engineering 1.2 Responsibilities and Role of a Civil Engineer 1.3 History of Civil Engineering 1.4 Branches of Civil Engineering 1.4.1 Structural Engineering 1.4.2 Building Construction 1.4.3 Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering 1.4.4 Water Resources and Hydraulic Engineering 1.4.5 Environmental Engineering 1.4.6 Transportation Engineering 1.4.7 Construction Technology and Management 1.4.8 Earthquake Engineering 1.4.9 Materials Engineering 1.4.10 Urban and Municipal Engineering 1.4.11 Town Planning 1.4.12 Coastal Engineering 1.4.13 Surveying 1.4.14 Photogrammetry and Mapping 1.4.15 Estimating and Costing 1.5 Civil Engineering for Infrastructure Development of a Country 1.6 Civil Engineering Structures 1.6.1 Building 1.6.2 Bridges 1.6.3 Dams 1.6.4 Roads 1.6.5 Runways 1.6.6 Railways 1.6.7 Water Tanks 1.6.8 Retaining Walls 1.6.9 Towers 1.6.10 Chimneys 1.6.11 Pipelines 1.6.12 Canals 1.7 Codes and Specifications 1.7.1 Functions of Codes 1.7.2 ASTM International 1.7.3 British Standards 1.7.4 Eurocodes 1.7.5 Australian Standards Chapter 2 Units, Measurements, and Symbols 2.1 Systems of Measurements 2.1.1 The C.G.S. System 2.1.2 The M.K.S. System 2.1.3 The F.P.S. System 2.2 The S.I. System 2.2.1 Fundamental Units 2.2.1.1 Meter 2.2.1.2 Kilogram 2.2.1.3 Second 2.2.2 Derived Units 2.3 Rules for SI Units 2.4 Measures of Length 2.5 Measures of Weights 2.6 Measures of Surface Area 2.7 Cubic Measures 2.8 Power, Work, Energy, and Heat 2.8.1 Unit of Heat 2.8.2 Unit of Force Chapter 3 Preliminary Mathematics 3.1 Mathematical Signs, Symbols, and Abbreviations 3.2 Mensuration 3.2.1 Mensuration of Areas 3.2.1.1 Circle 3.2.1.2 Square 3.2.1.3 Triangle 3.2.1.4 Semicircle 3.2.1.5 Arc of a Circle 3.2.1.6 Sector of a Circle 3.2.1.7 Segment of a Circle 3.2.1.8 Polygons 3.2.2 Mensuration of Volumes 3.2.2.1 Cube 3.2.2.2 Cuboid 3.2.2.3 Pyramid 3.2.2.4 Circular Cone 3.2.2.5 Wedge 3.2.2.6 Sphere 3.2.2.7 Hemisphere 3.2.2.8 Spherical Sector 3.2.2.9 Spherical Zone 3.2.2.10 Spherical Wedge 3.2.2.11 Hollow Sphere or Spherical Shell 3.2.2.12 Cylindrical Ring or Torus 3.3 Algebraic Formulae 3.3.1 Exponent Rules 3.3.2 Powers of Ten 3.3.3 Simple Algebra 3.3.4 Formulae for Abridged Multiplication 3.3.5 Quadratic Equations 3.3.6 Cubic Equations 3.4 Trigonometry 3.4.1 Trigonometric Functions 3.4.2 Trigonometric Relations 3.4.3 Functions of the Sum and Differences of Two Angles 3.4.4 Functions of ½ A 3.4.5 Functions of 2A 3.4.6 Products and Powers of Functions 3.4.7 Sums and Differences of Functions 3.4.8 Rule for the Change of Trigonometrical Ratios 3.5 Solution of Triangles 3.5.1 Relation between Angles and Sides of Plane Triangles 3.5.1.1 Law of Sines 3.5.1.2 Law of Cosines 3.6 Matrix 3.6.1 Transpose of a Matrix 3.6.2 Types of Matrix 3.6.2.1 Square Matrix 3.6.2.2 Rectangular Matrix 3.6.2.3 Null Matrix or Zero Matrix 3.6.2.4 Triangular Matrix 3.6.2.5 Diagonal Matrix 3.6.2.6 Scalar Matrix 3.6.2.7 Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix 3.6.2.8 Row Matrix 3.6.2.9 Column Matrix 3.6.2.10 Nilpotent Matrix 3.6.2.11 Symmetrical Matrix 3.6.2.12 Skew Symmetrical Matrix 3.6.2.13 Orthogonal Matrix 3.6.3 Submatrix 3.6.4 Determinant of a Matrix 3.6.5 Minor of a Matrix 3.6.6 Cofactor of a Matrix 3.6.7 Adjoint of a Matrix 3.6.8 Equality of Two Matrices 3.6.9 Matrix Operations 3.6.9.1 Matrix Addition 3.6.9.2 Matrix Multiplication 3.6.9.3 Inverse of a Matrix 3.7 Calculus 3.7.1 Limits 3.7.1.1 Functions of Single-Variable Limits 3.7.1.2 Right Hand and Left Hand Limits 3.7.1.3 Theorems on Limits 3.7.1.4 Some Useful Limits 3.7.1.5 L’Hospital’s Rule 3.7.2 Differentiability 3.7.2.1 Rules of Differentiation 3.7.2.2 Some Standard Derivatives 3.7.2.3 Differentiation by Substitution 3.7.2.4 Mean Value Theorems 3.7.2.5 Partial Derivatives 3.7.3 Integration 3.7.3.1 Some Standard Integrations 3.7.3.2 Definite Integral 3.7.3.3 Improper Integral 3.7.3.4 Multiple Integrals 3.7.3.5 Change of Order of Integration 3.7.3.6 Triple Integrals 3.7.4 Fourier Series 3.7.4.1 Dirichlet’s Condition 3.7.4.2 Fourier Series in the Interval (a, b) 3.7.5 Series 3.7.5.1 Sequences 3.7.5.2 Series 3.7.5.3 Series Tests 3.7.6 Vector 3.7.6.1 Unit Vector 3.7.6.2 Null Vector 3.7.6.3 Product of Two Vectors 3.7.6.4 Differentiation of Vector 3.7.6.5 Vector Calculus 3.7.6.6 Divergence 3.7.6.7 Curl 3.7.7 Line Integral 3.7.8 Surfaces 3.7.8.1 Smooth Surfaces 3.7.8.2 Orientable and Nonorientable Surfaces 3.7.8.3 Surface Integral 3.7.8.4 Flux across a Surface 3.7.9 Volume Integral 3.7.10 Stroke’s Theorem 3.7.11 Green Theorem 3.7.12 Gauss’s Divergence Theorem (Relation between Surface and Volume Integrals) Chapter 4 Engineering Mechanics 4.1 Statics of Particle: Forces on a Plane 4.1.1 Types of System of Forces 4.1.1.1 Coplanar Force System 4.1.1.2 Concurrent Force System 4.1.1.3 Collinear Force System 4.1.1.4 Parallel Force System 4.1.2 Resultant of Forces 4.1.2.1 Parallelogram Law of Forces 4.1.2.2 Triangle Law of Forces 4.1.2.3 Polygon Law of Forces 4.1.2.4 Resultant of Coplanar Concurrent Force Systems 4.1.3 Equilibrium of Coplanar Forces 4.1.3.1 Lami’s Theorem 4.1.3.2 Conditions for the Equilibrium of Coplanar Concurrent Force Systems 4.2 Moment of a Force 4.2.1 Varignon’s Theorem 4.3 Couple 4.4 Statics of Particle: Noncoplanar Concurrent Forces in Space 4.4.1 Resultant of Concurrent Force Systems in Space 4.4.2 Equilibrium of Concurrent Space Forces 4.5 Statics of Rigid Body: Nonconcurrent, Coplanar Forces on a Plane Rigid Body 4.5.1 Conditions of Equilibrium of Coplanar Nonconcurrent Force Systems 4.5.2 Free Body Diagram 4.5.3 Principle of Transmissibility 4.5.4 Principle of Superposition of Forces 4.6 Types of Supports 4.6.1 Roller Supports 4.6.2 Hinged Supports 4.6.3 Fixed Supports 4.6.4 Pinned Supports 4.7 Types of Beams 4.7.1 Simply Supported Beam 4.7.2 Fixed Beam 4.7.3 Cantilever Beam 4.7.4 Continuously Supported Beam 4.7.5 Overhanging Beams 4.8 Types of Loads 4.8.1 Point Loads 4.8.2 Uniformly Distributed Load 4.8.3 Uniformly Varying Load 4.8.4 Support Reactions 4.9 Friction 4.9.1 Static Friction 4.9.2 Kinetic Friction/Dynamic Friction 4.9.2.1 Sliding Friction 4.9.2.2 Rolling friction 4.9.3 Laws of Friction 4.9.3.1 Law 1 4.9.3.2 Law 2 4.9.3.3 Law 3 4.9.3.4 Law 4 4.9.3.5 Law 5 4.9.4 Coefficient of Friction 4.9.5 Calculation of Frictional Force on a Body 4.9.6 Angle of Friction 4.9.7 Angle of Repose 4.9.8 Cone of Friction 4.9.9 Wedge Friction 4.9.10 Ladder Friction 4.10 Properties of Surfaces and Solids 4.10.1 Center of Gravity 4.10.2 Centroid 4.10.3 Axis of Reference 4.10.4 Axis of Symmetry 4.10.5 CG of Solid Bodies 4.10.6 Centroid of Area 4.10.7 Theorems of Pappus–Guldinus 4.10.7.1 Theorem1 4.10.7.2 Theorem 2 4.10.8 Moment of Inertia 4.10.8.1 Radius of Gyration 4.10.8.2 Perpendicular Axis Theorem 4.10.8.3 Parallel Axis Theorem 4.10.8.4 Moment of Inertia of Composite Areas 4.10.9 Instantaneous Center 4.11 Kinetics of Particle 4.11.1 Work 4.11.1.1 Work Done by Friction Force 4.11.1.2 Work Done by a Spring 4.11.1.3 Work Done by Torque 4.11.1.4 Work Done by a Force on a Moving Body 4.11.1.5 Work Done by a Variable Force 4.11.2 Power 4.11.3 Energy 4.11.3.1 Potential Energy 4.11.3.2 Kinetic Energy 4.11.4 Work-Energy Principle 4.11.5 Impulse and Momentum 4.11.5.1 Law of Conservation of Momentum 4.11.6 Collision of Elastic Bodies 4.11.6.1 Newton’s Law of Collision of Elastic Bodies 4.11.7 Types of collision 4.11.7.1 Direct Collision of Two Bodies 4.11.7.2 Direct Impact of a Body with a Fixed Plane 4.11.7.3 Indirect Impact of Two Bodies 4.11.7.4 Indirect Impact of a Body with a Fixed Plane 4.12 Kinematics of a Particle 4.12.1 Plane Motion 4.12.1.1 Translation 4.12.1.2 Rotation 4.12.1.3 General Plane Motion 4.12.2 Kinetics of Rigid Bodies under Combined Translational and Rotational Motion 4.12.3 Principle of Conservation of Energy Chapter 5 Mechanics of Structures and Their Analysis 5.1 Simple Stress 5.1.1 Introduction 5.1.2 Stress 5.1.3 Stress on an Oblique Plane Due to Axial Loading 5.2 Simple Strain 5.2.1 Stress–Strain Diagram 5.2.1.1 Proportional Limit 5.2.1.2 Elastic Limit 5.2.1.3 Elastic and Plastic Ranges 5.2.1.4 Yield Point 5.2.1.5 Ultimate Strength 5.2.1.6 Rupture Strength 5.2.1.7 Modulus of Resilience 5.2.1.8 Modulus of Toughness 5.2.2 Axial Deformation 5.2.3 Shearing Deformation 5.2.4 Poisson’s Ratio 5.2.5 Biaxial Deformation 5.2.6 Triaxial Deformation 5.2.7 Thermal Stress 5.3 Statically Determinate Members 5.3.1 Determinacy and Stability 5.3.2 Statically Indeterminate Members 5.3.3 Truss Structures 5.4 Relationship between Elastic Constants 5.5 Principal Planes and Principal Stresses 5.5.1 Principal Axis 5.5.2 Maximum and Minimum Normal Stress 5.5.3 Maximum Shear Stress 5.6 Mohr’s Circle Method 5.6.1 Equation of the Mohr Circle 5.7 Combined Stresses 5.7.1 Stresses Developed through Axial Load Combinations and Bending Moments 5.7.2 Direct Shear in Association with Torsion 5.7.3 Stresses Produced Due to Combined Action of Bending and Torsion 5.8 Physical Properties of Materials and Their Measuring Parameters 5.8.1 Brittleness 5.8.2 Ductility 5.8.3 Elasticity 5.8.4 Hardness 5.8.5 Malleability 5.8.6 Modulus of Resilience 5.8.7 Plasticity 5.8.8 Proof Resilience 5.8.9 Relative Density 5.8.10 Resilience 5.8.11 Secant Modulus 5.8.12 Specific Modulus of Elasticity 5.8.13 Stiffness 5.8.14 Tenacity 5.8.15 Toughness 5.9 Shear Forces and Bending Moments 5.9.1 Transverse Loading 5.9.2 Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) 5.9.3 Sign Convention 5.9.4 SFD and BMD for Different Cantilever and Simply Supported Beams 5.9.5 Relation between Load, Shear, and Bending Moment 5.10 Bending Stresses in Beams 5.10.1 Assumptions in the Theory of Simple Bending 5.10.2 Theory of Simple Bending 5.10.3 Position of Neutral Axis 5.10.4 Moment of Resistance 5.10.5 Section Modulus 5.11 Shearing Stresses in Beams 5.11.1 Shear Flow 5.11.2 Built-Up Beams 5.12 Deeflctions 5.12.1 Correlation between Slope, Deflection, and Radius of Curvature 5.12.2 Moment Area Method 5.12.2.1 Sign Rules 5.12.3 Conjugate Beam Method 5.13 Indeterminate Structures 5.13.1 Force Method 5.13.2 Displacement Method 5.14 Fixed Beams 5.14.1 Method of Superposition 5.14.2 Double Integration Method 5.14.3 Moment Area Method 5.14.3.1 Mohr’s First Theorem (Mohr I) 5.14.3.2 Mohr’s Second Theorem (Mohr II) 5.15 Continuous Beams 5.15.1 Three-Moment Theorem 5.16 Torsion 5.16.1 Terms Related to Torsion 5.16.1.1 Torsional Shearing Stress (τ) 5.16.1.2 Angle of Twist 5.16.1.3 Power Transmitted by the Shaft 5.16.1.4 Equivalent Torque 5.16.2 Composite Shafts 5.16.2.1 Composite Shafts in Series 5.16.2.2 Composite Shafts in Parallel 5.16.3 Shaft Couplings 5.17 Thin Cylinders 5.17.1 Failure of Thin Cylinders 5.17.2 Applications of Thin Cylinders 5.17.3 Thin Cylinders Subjected to Internal Pressure 5.17.3.1 Hoop Stress on Thin Cylinders 5.17.3.2 Radial Stress on Thin Cylinders 5.17.3.3 Longitudinal Stress on Thin cylinders 5.18 Thick Cylinders 5.19 Columns and Struts 5.19.1 Euler’s Theorem of Columns 5.20 Springs 5.20.1 Closed Coiled Helical Springs 5.20.1.1 Under Axial Load, W 5.20.1.2 Under Axial Torque Load,T 5.20.2 Open Coiled Helical Spring 5.21 Strain Energy Chapter 6 Principles of Surveying 6.1 Basic Principles of Surveying 6.1.1 Objectives of Surveying 6.1.2 Need of Surveying 6.1.3 General Principle of Surveying 6.1.4 Scales 6.1.4.1 Plain Scale 6.1.4.2 Diagonal Scale 6.1.4.3 Vernier Scale 6.1.4.4 Scale of Chords 6.2 Classification of Surveying 6.2.1 Primary Classification 6.2.1.1 Plane Surveying 6.2.1.2 Geodetic Surveying 6.2.2 Secondary Classification 6.3 Values of a Quantity 6.3.1 True Value of a Quantity 6.3.2 Observed Value of a Quantity 6.3.3 Most Probable Value of a Quantity 6.3.4 Principle of Least Square 6.4 Errors 6.4.1 Sources of Errors 6.4.1.1 Instrumental Errors 6.4.1.2 Personal Errors 6.4.1.3 Natural Errors 6.4.2 Types of Surveying Errors 6.4.2.1 Mistakes 6.4.2.2 Accidental Errors 6.4.2.3 Systematic or Cumulative Errors 6.4.2.4 Compensating Errors 6.4.3 Most Probable Error 6.5 Vertical Control 6.6 Measurement of Distance 6.6.1 Methods of Linear Surveying 6.6.1.1 Direct Measurement 6.6.1.2 Measurement by Optical Means 6.6.1.3 Electronic Method 6.7 Contouring 6.7.1 Terms related to Contouring 6.7.2 Characteristics of Contours 6.8 Traverse Surveying 6.8.1 Procedure for Traverse Calculations 6.8.1.1 Balancing Angles of Closed Traverses 6.8.1.2 Closure of Latitudes and Departures 6.9 Hydrographic Surveying 6.9.1 Horizontal Controls 6.9.2 Vertical Controls 6.9.3 Sounding and the Methods Employed in Sounding 6.9.3.1 Sounding Boat 6.9.3.2 Fathometer 6.10 Curves 6.10.1 Simple Curve 6.10.1.1 Elements of a Simple Curve 6.10.1.2 Methods of Setting Out of Single Circular Curve 6.10.2 Compound Curve 6.10.3 Transition Curves 6.10.3.1 Requirement of Transition Curve 6.11 Earthworks 6.11.1 Computation of Areas 6.11.1.1 Areas of Skeleton 6.11.1.2 Considering the Area along Boundaries 6.11.2 Computation of Volume 6.11.2.1 Method of Cross Sections 6.11.2.2 Trapezoidal Formula 6.11.2.3 Prismoidal Formula 6.11.3 Methods of Contours for Volume Computation 6.11.4 Prismoidal Correction for Volume 6.11.5 Curvature Correction for Volumes 6.11.5.1 Equivalent Areas 6.11.5.2 Pappus Theorem 6.12 Geodetic Surveying 6.12.1 Triangulation 6.12.1.1 Objectives of Triangulation 6.12.1.2 Classification of Triangulation System 6.12.2 Curvature and Refraction 6.12.3 Intervisibility and Height of Stations 6.12.3.1 Distance between Stations 6.12.3.2 Relative Elevations of Stations 6.13 Photogrammetry 6.13.1 Terrestrial Photogrammetry 6.13.2 Aerial Photogrammetry 6.13.3 Orthophotos 6.14 Modern Surveying Equipment 6.14.1 EDM Instruments 6.14.1.1 Infrared Wave Instruments 6.14.1.2 Light Wave Instruments 6.14.1.3 Microwave Instruments 6.14.2 Total Station 6.14.3 Automatic Level 6.15 Modern Surveying Methods 6.15.1 Remote Sensing 6.15.2 Geographical Information System 6.15.3 Global Positioning System 6.15.3.1 GPS Baseline 6.15.3.2 Kinematic GPS 6.15.3.3 Continuously Operating Reference Stations 6.15.3.4 Heights from GPS Chapter 7 Building Materials 7.1 Principal Properties of Building Materials 7.1.1 Physical Characters 7.1.2 Mechanical Properties 7.2 Structural Clay Products 7.2.1 Properties 7.3 Rocks and Stones 7.3.1 Requirements of Good Building Stones 7.3.2 Tests on Stones 7.3.3 Common Building Stones 7.4 Wood and Wood Products 7.4.1 Problems of Using Wood as a Building Material 7.4.2 Minimizing the Problems of Wood 7.4.3 Seasoning of Timber 7.5 Materials for Making Concrete 7.5.1 Materials Used in RCC Work 7.5.2 Types of Concrete 7.6 Mortars 7.6.1 Properties of a Good Mortar 7.6.2 Preparation of Cement Mortar 7.6.3 Precautions in Using Mortar 7.6.4 Tests for Mortar 7.7 Paints, Enamels, Varnishes 7.7.1 Painting 7.7.2 Characteristics of an Ideal Paint 7.7.3 Pigment Volume Concentration Number (PVCN) 7.7.4 Components of Paint 7.7.5 Types of Paint 7.7.6 Defects in Painting 7.7.7 Varnish 7.7.8 The Qualities of a Good Varnish 7.7.9 Distempering 7.7.9.1 Properties 7.7.10 Ingredients of a Distemper 7.8 Tar, Bitumen, Asphalt 7.8.1 Tar 7.8.2 Bitumen 7.8.3 Forms of Bitumen 7.8.4 Properties of Bituminous Materials 7.8.5 Asphalt 7.8.6 Forms of Asphalt 7.9 Miscellaneous Materials 7.9.1 Abrasives 7.9.2 Adhesives 7.9.3 Asbestos 7.9.4 Cork 7.9.5 Fly Ash 7.9.6 Gypsum 7.10 Metals and Alloys 7.10.1 Ferrous Metals 7.10.2 Nonferrous Metals 7.10.3 Other Brass Alloys 7.10.4 Other Bronze Alloys 7.11 Ceramic Materials 7.12 Polymeric Materials 7.12.1 Characteristics of Polymers 7.13 Polymer Fiber Composites 7.14 Geosynthetics 7.15 Soil Stabilizers 7.15.1 Stabilizing Agents 7.16 Sustainable Construction Materials Chapter 8 Building Construction Technology and Management 8.1 Basics of Construction Technology 8.1.1 What is Construction Technology? 8.1.2 Scope of Construction Technology and Management 8.1.3 Impact of Construction Technology 8.1.3.1 Positive Construction Impact for a Worker 8.1.3.2 Positive Impact on Surroundings 8.1.3.3 Positive Impact on the Country 8.1.3.4 Negative Impact of Construction for a Worker 8.1.3.5 Impact on Environment: Cutting of Trees 8.1.3.6 Wrapping Up 8.2 Planning for and Controlling Construction 8.2.1 Community Development 8.2.2 Managing Community Development 8.2.3 The Role of Management 8.2.4 Teamwork 8.2.5 Accountability 8.3 Construction Safety 8.3.1 Safety Importance 8.3.2 Designing for Safety 8.3.3 Role of Various Parties in Designing for Safety 8.4 The Construction Process 8.4.1 Initiating the Project 8.4.2 Designing the Project 8.4.3 Design Methodology 8.4.4 Functional Design 8.4.5 Preliminary Design 8.4.6 Design Development 8.4.7 Construction Documents and Bidding 8.4.8 Types of Contractors 8.4.9 Types of Contracts 8.4.10 Managing Construction Projects 8.4.11 Preparing the Site 8.4.12 Geotechnical Report Related to Site Soil Properties 8.4.13 Construction Site Clearing and Excavation 8.4.14 Grading of Construction Project Site 8.4.15 Building the Project 8.4.16 Completing the Final Inspection 8.4.17 Closing the Contract 8.5 Construction Tools and Equipment 8.5.1 Tools 8.5.2 Building Construction Equipment 8.6 Construction Scheduling 8.6.1 Purpose of Scheduling 8.6.2 Methods of Scheduling 8.6.3 Scheduling Workers 8.6.4 Obtaining Materials 8.6.5 Obtaining Equipment 8.6.6 Obtaining Permits 8.7 Beginning Construction 8.7.1 Site Preparation 8.7.1.1 Establishing Site Preparation 8.7.1.2 Providing Access to Site 8.7.1.3 Clearing the Site 8.7.1.4 Locating a Structure 8.7.1.5 Locating Temporary Buildings 8.7.1.6 Securing the Site 8.7.2 Earthwork and Foundation 8.7.3 Damp Proofing of Foundation Walls 8.7.4 Building the Super Structure 8.7.4.1 Floor 8.7.4.2 Walls 8.7.4.3 Roof and Ceiling Framing 8.7.4.4 Installing Fascia and Sheathing 8.8 Installation of Plumbing and Sanitary Fittings 8.8.1 Plumbing Systems 8.8.1.1 Piping System 8.8.1.2 Materials for Residential and Light Commercial Piping System 8.8.2 Sanitary Fittings 8.9 Installation of HVAC and Communication Systems 8.9.1 Temperature Control 8.9.2 Humidity Control 8.9.3 Cleaning Air 8.10 Electrical Power System 8.11 Landscaping Chapter 9 Concrete Technology 9.1 Fresh Concrete 9.1.1 Properties of Fresh Concrete 9.1.1.1 Consistency 9.1.1.2 Setting of Concrete 9.1.1.3 Workability 9.1.1.4 Bleeding and Segregation in Concrete 9.1.1.5 Hydration in Concrete 9.1.1.6 Air Entrainment 9.2 Rheology of Concrete 9.3 Hardened Concrete 9.3.1 Properties of Hardened Concrete 9.3.1.1 Strength 9.3.1.2 Creep 9.3.1.3 Durability 9.3.1.4 Shrinkage 9.3.1.5 Modulus of Elasticity 9.3.1.6 Water Tightness 9.3.2 Factors Affecting Properties of Hardened Concrete 9.3.2.1 W/C Ratio 9.3.2.2 Type and Amount of Cement 9.3.2.3 Type and Amount of Aggregate 9.3.2.4 Weather Condition 9.4 Prestressed Concrete 9.5 Proportioning of Concrete Mixes 9.5.1 Types of Mixes 9.5.2 Mix Proportion Designations 9.5.3 Methods of Proportioning Concrete 9.5.3.1 Arbitrary Method 9.5.3.2 Fineness Modulus Method 9.5.3.3 Minimum Void Method 9.5.3.4 Maximum Density Method 9.5.3.5 W/C Ratio Method 9.6 Production of Concrete 9.6.1 Manufacturing Process 9.6.2 Transport to Work Site 9.6.3 Placing and Compacting 9.6.4 Curing 9.6.5 Quality Control 9.7 Underwater Concreting 9.8 Concreting under Extreme Climatic Conditions 9.8.1 Hot Weather Concreting 9.8.2 Cold Weather Concreting 9.9 Special Concretes and High Performance Concretes 9.9.1 Light Weight Concrete 9.9.2 Aerated Concrete 9.9.3 High-Density Concrete 9.9.4 Mass Concrete 9.9.5 Ready-Mix Concrete 9.9.6 Polymer Concrete 9.9.6.1 Polymer-Impregnated Concrete 9.9.6.2 Polymer Cement Concrete 9.9.6.3 Polymer Concrete 9.9.7 Shotcrete 9.9.8 Prepacked Concrete 9.9.9 Vacuum Concrete 9.9.10 Pumped Concrete 9.9.11 High-Performance Concrete Chapter 10 Reinforced Concrete Structures 10.1 Fundamentals of Reinforced Concrete 10.1.1 Design Philosophies for Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures 10.1.2 Basic Definitions 10.2 Design of Singly Reinforced Sections 10.2.1 Limiting Depth of Neutral Axis 10.2.2 Analysis of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Sections 10.2.2.1 Concrete Stress Block in Compression 10.2.2.2 Depth of Neutral Axis 10.2.2.3 Ultimate Moment of Resistance 10.2.2.4 Limiting Moment of Resistance 10.2.2.5 Safety at Ultimate Limit State in Flexure 10.2.3 Modes of Failure: Types of Section 10.2.4 Computation of Moment of Resistance 10.2.5 Design Type of Problems 10.3 Design of Doubly Reinforced Sections 10.3.1 Basic Principle 10.3.2 Determination of f[sub(sc)] and f[sub(cc)] 10.3.3 Minimum and Maximum Steel 10.3.4 Types of Problems and Steps of Solution 10.4 Shear in Reinforced Concrete 10.4.1 Modes of Failure 10.4.2 Shear Stress 10.4.3 Design Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete 10.4.4 Critical Section for Shear 10.4.5 Enhanced Shear Strength of Sections Close to Supports 10.4.6 Minimum Shear Reinforcement 10.4.7 Design of Shear Reinforcement 10.4.8 Shear Reinforcement for Sections Close to Supports 10.5 Bond, Development Length, and Splicing of Reinforcement 10.5.1 Design Bond Stress τ[sub(bd)] 10.5.2 Development Length 10.5.3 Checking of Development Lengths of Bars in Tension 10.5.4 Reinforcement Splicing 10.6 Continuous Beams 10.6.1 Analysis of Continuous Beam 10.7 Torsion in Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) Elements 10.7.1 Analysis for Torsional Moment in a Member 10.7.2 Approach of Design for Combined Bending, Shear and Torsion 10.7.3 Critical Section 10.7.4 Shear and Torsion 10.7.5 Reinforcement in Members Subjected to Torsion 10.7.6 Requirement of Reinforcement Chapter 11 Steel Structures 11.1 Steel as a Structural Material 11.2 Plastic Analysis and Design 11.2.1 Basics of Plastic Analysis 11.2.2 Principles of Plastic Analysis 11.2.2.1 Collapse Mechanisms 11.2.2.2 Combined Mechanism 11.2.2.3 Number of Independent Mechanisms 11.2.2.4 Theorems of Plastic Analysis 11.2.2.5 Methods of Plastic Analysis 11.3 Introduction to Limit State Design 11.3.1 Limit State of Strength 11.3.2 Limit State of Serviceability 11.3.3 Partial Safety Factors 11.3.4 Design Criteria 11.4 Simple Connections—Riveted, Bolted, and Pinned Connections 11.4.1 Riveted Connections 11.4.1.1 Types of Rivet Joints 11.4.2 Bolted Connections 11.4.2.1 Types of Bolts 11.4.2.2 Types of Bolted Joints 11.4.2.3 Bearing-Type Connections 11.4.2.4 Slip-Critical Connection 11.4.3 Pin Connections 11.4.3.1 Shear Capacity 11.4.3.2 Bearing Capacity 11.4.3.3 Flexural Capacity 11.4.4 Simple Welded Connections 11.4.4.1 Types of Welds 11.4.4.2 Weld Symbols 11.4.4.3 Welding Process 11.4.4.4 Weld Defects 11.4.4.5 Inspection of Welds 11.4.5 Design of Welds 11.4.5.1 Design of Butt Welds 11.4.5.2 Design of Fillet Welds 11.4.5.3 Design of Plug and Slot Welds 11.5 Tension Members 11.5.1 Types of Tension Members 11.5.2 Net Cross Sectional Area 11.5.3 Design of Tension Members 11.5.3.1 Design Strength Due to Yielding 11.5.3.2 Design Strength Due to Rupture 11.5.3.3 Design Strength Due to Block Shear 11.5.4 Lug Angles 11.6 Compression Members 11.6.1 Euler’s Buckling Theory 11.6.2 Types of Sections 11.6.3 Strength of Axially Loaded Compression Members 11.6.4 Effective Length of Compression Member 11.6.5 Maximum Slenderness Ratio 11.6.6 Angle Struts 11.6.7 Compression Members Composed of Back-to-Back Components 11.6.8 Lacings and Battens for Built-Up Compression Members 11.6.8.1 Lacings 11.6.8.2 Battens 11.7 Beams 11.7.1 Behavior of Steel Beams 11.7.1.1 Bending (Flexure) 11.7.1.2 Shear 11.7.1.3 Bearing 11.7.1.4 Deflection 11.7.1.5 Other Beam Failure Criteria 11.7.2 Laterally Supported Beam 11.7.2.1 Holes in the Tension Zone 11.7.2.2 Shear Lag Effects 11.7.2.3 Biaxial Bending 11.7.3 Laterally Unsupported Beams 11.7.3.1 Lateral-Torsional Buckling of Beams 11.7.3.2 Design Bending Strength 11.7.3.3 Effective Length of Compression Flanges 11.8 Members under Combined Axial Load and Moment 11.8.1 General 11.8.2 Local Capacity Check 11.8.3 Members Subjected to Combined Bending and Axial Forces 11.8.4 Overall Member Strength Check 11.9 Column Bases and Caps 11.9.1 Slab Base 11.9.2 Gusset Plate 11.10 Plate Girder 11.10.1 Elements of Plate Girder 11.10.2 Design Component of Plate Girder 11.10.3 Self-Weight and Economic Depth 11.10.3.1 Moment of Inertia of the Whole Section 11.10.4 Design of Web Plate 11.10.5 Web Stiffeners 11.10.6 Design of Flange 11.10.7 Curtailment of Flange Plates 11.10.8 Web Splices 11.10.9 Flange Splices 11.10.10 Welded Plate Girder 11.10.10.1 Web 11.10.10.2 Flange 11.10.10.3 Economic Depth 11.10.10.4 Self-Weight of the Girder 11.10.10.5 Design of Flange 11.10.10.6 Welds Connecting Flange with Web 11.10.10.7 Design of Intermediate Stiffeners 11.10.10.8 Design of Bearing Stiffener 11.11 Roof Trusses 11.11.1 Components of a Roof Truss 11.11.2 Types of Roof Trusses 11.11.3 Geometry of the Roof Truss 11.11.4 Truss Member Sections 11.11.5 Types of Connections 11.11.6 Loads on Roof Trusses 11.11.7 Economical Spacing of Roof Trusses 11.11.8 Design of a Roof Truss Chapter 12 Fluid Mechanics 12.1 Pressure and Its Measurement 12.1.1 Pressure Terminology 12.1.2 Units of Pressure 12.1.3 Pascal’s Law 12.1.4 Measurement of Pressure 12.2 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Surfaces 12.2.1 General Submerged Plane 12.2.2 Horizontal Submerged Plane 12.2.3 Inclined Submerged Surface 12.2.4 Vertical Submerged Surface 12.2.5 Curved Submerged Surface 12.3 Buoyancy and Flotation 12.3.1 Conditions of Equilibrium of Floating and Submerged Bodies 12.3.1.1 Stability of a Submerged Body 12.3.1.2 Stability of Floating Body 12.4 Fluid Kinematics 12.4.1 Continuity Equation 12.4.1.1 Velocity and Acceleration 12.4.1.2 Velocity Potential Function 12.4.1.3 Stream Function 12.4.2 Types of Flow 12.4.2.1 Eularian and Lagrangian Flow 12.4.2.2 Steady vs. Unsteady Flow 12.4.3 Streamlines, Streaklines, Pathlines 12.4.3.1 Streamline 12.4.3.2 Stream Tube 12.4.3.3 Pathline 12.4.3.4 Streakline 12.4.3.5 Timeline 12.4.4 Free and Forced Vortex Flow 12.4.4.1 Free Vortex Flow 12.4.4.2 Forced Vortex Flow 12.5 Dimensional Analysis 12.5.1 Dimensions and Units 12.5.2 Dimensional Homogeneity 12.6 Model Analysis 12.6.1 Model 12.6.2 Type of Forces Acting on the Moving Fluid 12.6.3 Dimensionless Numbers 12.6.4 Dynamic Similarity 12.7 Fluid Dynamics 12.7.1 Euler’s Equation 12.7.2 Bernoulli’s Equation from Euler’s Equation 12.7.2.1 Bernoulli’s Equation for Real Fluid 12.8 Fluid Flow Measurements 12.8.1 Practical Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation 12.8.1.1 Venturimeter 12.8.1.2 Nozzle 12.8.1.3 Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate 12.8.1.4 Pitot Tube 12.9 Flow through Pipes 12.9.1 Head Loss Due to Friction in the Pipe 12.9.1.1 Darcy’s Equation for Round Pipes 12.9.1.2 Darcy’s Equation for Noncircular Pipes 12.9.1.3 The Chezy Equation 12.9.1.4 Laminar Flow 12.9.1.5 Choice of Friction Factor f 12.9.1.6 Minor Energy (Head) Losses 12.10 Viscous Flow 12.10.1 Real Fluids 12.10.2 Laminar and Turbulent Flow 12.10.3 Pressure Loss Due to Friction in a Pipeline 12.10.4 Pressure Loss During Laminar Flow in a Pipe 12.11 Flow Past Immersed Bodies 12.11.1 Force Exerted by a Flowing Fluid on a Body 12.11.1.1 Drag Force 12.11.1.2 Lift Force 12.11.1.3 Expressions for Drag and Lift 12.11.1.4 Pressure Drag and Friction Drag 12.11.1.5 Lifting Force 12.11.1.6 Drag Force 12.11.1.7 Thrust Power to Overcome Drag Force 12.11.2 Boundary Layer 12.11.2.1 Potential Flow or Irrotational Flow Region 12.11.2.2 Factors Affecting the Growth of Boundary Layers 12.11.2.3 Thicknesses of the Boundary Layer 12.12 Compressible Flow 12.12.1 Thermodynamic Relations 12.12.2 Mach Number Chapter 13 Engineering Hydrology 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Importance of Hydrology 13.1.2 Hydrological Cycle 13.1.2.1 Catchment or Descriptive Representation of Hydrological Cycle 13.1.3 Some Important Definitions 13.2 Precipitation 13.2.1 Forms of Precipitation 13.2.2 Necessary Conditions for Occurrence of Precipitation 13.2.3 Types of Precipitation 13.2.4 Water Budget Equation for a Catchment 13.2.5 Rain Gauging (Measurement of Rainfall) 13.2.5.1 Types of Recording or Automatic Rain Gauges 13.2.5.2 Factors Governing Selection of Site for Rain Gauge Stations 13.2.5.3 Optimum Number of Rain Gauges 13.2.6 Mean Precipitation over an Area 13.3 Abstraction from Precipitations 13.3.1 Interception 13.3.2 Depression Storage 13.3.3 Watershed Leakage 13.3.4 Evaporation 13.3.4.1 Dalton’s Law of Evaporation 13.3.4.2 Measurement of Evaporation 13.3.5 Transpiration and Evapotranspiration 13.3.5.1 Evapotranspiration or Consumptive Use of Water 13.3.6 Infiltration 13.3.6.1 Infiltration Capacity 13.3.6.2 Infiltration Rate 13.3.6.3 Infiltration Capacity Curve 13.3.6.4 Horton’s Equation 13.3.6.5 Field Measurement of Infiltration Rate 13.4 Stream Flow Measurement 13.4.1 Stage 13.4.2 Measurement of Velocity 13.4.3 Direct Method of Discharge Measurement 13.4.4 Indirect Method of Discharge Measurement 13.5 Runoff 13.5.1 Computation of Runoff 13.6 Hydrographs 13.6.1 Components of Hydrograph 13.6.1.1 Factors Affecting Flood or Storm Hydrograph 13.6.1.2 Time Parameters Used in Hydrograph Analysis 13.6.2 Base Flow Separation 13.6.2.1 Method 1: Straight-Line Method 13.6.2.2 Method 2: Two-Lines Method 13.6.2.3 Method 3: Curves Extension Method 13.6.3 Computation of Direct Runoff or Rainfall Excess from Storm Hydrograph 13.6.3.1 Procedure 13.6.4 Unit Hydrograph 13.6.4.1 Assumptions of Unit Hydrograph Theory 13.6.4.2 Uses of Unit Hydrograph 13.6.4.3 Limitations of Unit Hydrograph 13.7 Floods 13.7.1 Types of Flood 13.7.2 Estimation of Flood Peak 13.8 Flood Routing 13.8.1 Uses of Flood Routing 13.8.2 Types of Flood Routing 13.8.3 Factors Used in Flood Routing 13.8.4 Basic Equation Used in Flood Routing Chapter 14 Water Resources Engineering 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 Need for Planning and Management 14.2 Water Resources Sustainability 14.2.1 Driving Forces and Pressures 14.2.2 State of Our Natural Water Resources 14.2.3 Impacts 14.2.4 Responses 14.2.5 The Benefits 14.3 Flow and Hydrostatic Forces 14.3.1 Definition of a Fluid 14.3.2 Bernoulli’s Equation 14.3.3 Hydrostatic Forces 14.4 Pressurized Pipe Flow 14.4.1 General Characteristics of Pipe Flow 14.4.2 Fully Developed Flow 14.4.3 Moody Chart 14.5 Open Channel Flow 14.5.1 Types of Open Channel 14.5.1.1 Prismatic and Nonprismatic Channels 14.5.1.2 Rigid and Mobile Boundary Channels 14.5.2 Flow Regimes 14.5.2.1 Steady and Unsteady Flows 14.5.2.2 Uniform and Nonuniform Flows 14.5.2.3 Gradually Varied and Rapidly Varied Flow 14.5.2.4 Spatially Varied Flow 14.5.3 Channel Geometry 14.5.4 Velocity Distribution in Open Channel 14.5.5 Wide-Open Channels 14.5.6 Specific Energy 14.5.7 Critical Flow 14.5.8 Momentum in Open Channel 14.5.9 Specific Force 14.6 Groundwater Flow 14.6.1 Groundwater Flow 14.6.2 Groundwater Flow Equation 14.6.2.1 Mass Balance 14.6.2.2 Diffusion Equation (Transient Flow) 14.6.2.3 Laplace Equation (Steady-State Flow) 14.6.2.4 Two-Dimensional Groundwater Flow 14.6.3 Summary of Differential Equations for Groundwater Flow 14.6.3.1 Confined Flow 14.6.3.2 Unconfined Flow (Water-Table Aquifers) 14.6.3.3 Aquifers with Vertical Accretion to Flow 14.7 Water Distribution 14.7.1 Water Distribution on Earth 14.7.2 Water Distribution System 14.7.3 Components of a Network 14.7.4 Layouts of Distribution Network 14.7.4.1 Dead-End System 14.7.4.2 Grid Iron System 14.7.4.3 Circular or Ring System 14.7.4.4 Radial System 14.7.5 Hydraulic Design 14.7.5.1 Dead-End Method 14.7.5.2 Hardy-Cross Method 14.7.5.3 Equivalent Pipe Method 14.8 Water for Hydroelectric Generation 14.8.1 Hydroelectric Power 14.8.2 Types of Hydroelectric Projects 14.8.2.1 Run-of-River Schemes 14.8.2.2 Storage Schemes 14.8.2.3 Pumped-Storage Schemes 14.8.2.4 Tidal Power Development Schemes 14.8.3 Hydropower Potential 14.9 Flood Control 14.9.1 Causes of Floods 14.9.1.1 Natural Causes 14.9.1.2 Man-Made Causes 14.9.2 Effects of Floods 14.9.2.1 Primary Effects 14.9.2.2 Secondary Effects 14.9.2.3 Tertiary and Long-Term Effects 14.9.2.4 Benefits of Floods 14.9.3 Methods of Flood Control 14.9.3.1 Dams 14.9.3.2 Water-Gate 14.9.3.3 Diversion Canals 14.9.3.4 Self-Closing Flood Barrier 14.9.3.5 Coastal Defenses 14.9.3.6 River Defenses 14.9.3.7 Levees 14.10 Storm Sewers and Detention 14.10.1 Storm Sewer 14.10.1.1 Inlet 14.10.1.2 Catch Basin 14.10.1.3 Piping 14.10.1.4 Outlet 14.10.2 Environmental Impacts of Storm Sewers 14.10.2.1 Water Quantity 14.10.2.2 Water Quality 14.10.2.3 Reducing Stormwater Flows 14.10.2.4 Mosquito Breeding 14.10.3 Hydraulic Design of Storm Sewers 14.10.4 Stormwater Detention 14.10.4.1 Dry Detention Basins 14.10.4.2 Wet Retention Ponds 14.10.4.3 Maintenance Considerations 14.11 Street and Highway Drainage and Culverts 14.11.1 Street and Highway Drainage 14.11.1.1 Draining the Roadway and Road Side 14.11.1.2 Drainage within Pavement Layers 14.11.1.3 Road Way Drainage in Fill 14.11.1.4 Highway Drainage of Runoff in Cut 14.11.1.5 Road-Way Drainage in Urban Areas 14.11.1.6 Highway Runoff Drainage in Rural Areas 14.11.1.7 Cross-Drainage Structures and Works 14.11.2 Culverts 14.11.2.1 Materials Used for Culvert Construction 14.11.2.2 Location of Culverts 14.11.2.3 Types of Culverts 14.11.2.4 Hydraulic Design Considerations for Culverts 14.11.2.5 Terminology 14.11.2.6 Types of Flow Control 14.11.2.7 Culvert Design Procedure 14.12 Design of Spillways and Energy Dissipation for Flood Control Storage 14.12.1 Spillways 14.12.2 Spillway Components 14.12.3 Classification of Spillways 14.12.4 Various Aspects Involved in a Spillway Design 14.12.5 Spillway Design Flood 14.12.6 Estimation of Spillway Design Flood 14.12.7 Spillway Design 14.12.7.1 Discharge Characteristics 14.12.7.2 The Spillway Crest Profile 14.12.7.3 Spillway Toe 14.12.8 Energy Dissipation 14.12.9 Classification of Energy Dissipation 14.12.10 Principal Types of Energy Dissipators 14.12.11 Ananlysis of Parameters 14.12.12 Stilling Basin 14.12.12.1 Elements of Stilling Basin 14.12.13 Design of Hydraulic Jump Stilling Basin Type Energy Dissipators 14.12.14 Deflector Buckets 14.13 Sedimentation and Erosion Hydraulics 14.13.1 Sedimentation 14.13.2 Effects of Sedimentation 14.13.2.1 From Increased Sedimentation 14.13.2.2 Decreased Sedimentation 14.13.3 Control of Sedimentation 14.13.4 Erosion 14.13.5 Erosive Forces 14.13.5.1 Ice 14.13.5.2 Wind 14.13.5.3 Water 14.13.5.4 Human Activities 14.13.6 Ecological and Economic Impacts 14.13.7 Preventive Measures and Erosion Control 14.14 Water Resources Management for Sustainability 14.14.1 Water Resource Management for Agriculture 14.14.2 Urban Water Management 14.14.3 Future of Water Resources 14.15 Reservoir and Stream Flow Routing 14.15.1 Reservoir 14.15.2 Types of Reservoirs 14.15.2.1 Valley Dammed Reservoir 14.15.2.2 Bank-Side Reservoirs 14.15.2.3 Service Reservoirs 14.15.3 Classification of Reservoirs 14.15.3.1 Storage or Conservation Reservoirs 14.15.3.2 Flood Control Reservoirs 14.15.3.3 Retarding Reservoirs 14.15.3.4 Detention Reservoirs 14.15.3.5 Distribution Reservoir 14.15.3.6 Balancing Reservoirs 14.15.3.7 Conservation Reservoir 14.15.3.8 Multipurpose Reservoir 14.15.4 Zones of Storage 14.15.5 Reservoir Capacity 14.15.5.1 Graphical Method 14.15.5.2 Analytical Method 14.15.6 Reservoir Yield 14.15.7 Determination of Yield of a Reservoir 14.15.8 Stream Flow Routing 14.15.9 Classification of Flood Routing 14.15.9.1 Reservoir Routing 14.15.9.2 Channel Routing 14.15.10 Types of Flow Routing 14.15.10.1 Lumped or Hydrological Routing 14.15.10.2 Distributed or Hydraulic Routing 14.15.11 Reservoir Routing 14.15.11.1 Pul’s Method 14.15.11.2 Goodrich Method 14.15.12 Channel Routing: Muskingum Method 14.15.12.1 Required Input for Muskingum Routing 14.15.12.2 Routing Procedure Using Muskingum Method 14.15.13 Flood Routing by Saint Venant Equations 14.16 Water Withdrawals and Uses 14.16.1 Water Withdrawals 14.16.2 The Water-Use Cycle 14.16.3 Categories of Water Use 14.16.4 Future Water Use Chapter 15 Soil Mechanics 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Formation of Soil 15.3 Soil Structure and Clay Minerals 15.3.1 Types of Soil Structure 15.3.2 Basic Structural Units of Clay Minerals 15.3.3 Types of Clay Minerals 15.4 Basic Definitions and Relationships 15.4.1 Basic Definitions 15.4.2 Some Important Relationships 15.5 Index Properties of Soils 15.5.1 Particle Size Analysis 15.5.1.1 Grain Size Distribution 15.5.2 Consistency of Soil 15.5.2.1 Shrinkage Parameters 15.5.3 Basic Definitions 15.6 Soil Classification 15.7 Permeability 15.7.1 Hydraulic Head 15.7.2 Darcy’s Law 15.7.2.1 Seepage Velocity 15.7.2.2 Value of Hydraulic Conductivity (k) 15.7.2.3 Empirical Relation for k 15.7.3 Determination of Coefficient of Permeability 15.7.3.1 Constant Head Permeability Test 15.7.3.2 Falling Head Permeability Test 15.7.3.3 Pumping Tests 15.7.3.4 Capillary Rise in Soil 15.7.4 Factors Affecting Permeability of Soils 15.7.5 Permeability of Stratified Soil Deposits 15.8 Seepage Analysis 15.8.1 Seepage Pressure 15.8.2 Quick Sand Condition 15.9 Stress Distribution in Soil 15.9.1 Geostatic Stresses 15.9.2 Vertical Stress due to Concentrated Load 15.9.2.1 Assumptions 15.9.2.2 Limitations of Boussinesq’s Solution 15.9.3 Pressure Distribution Diagrams 15.9.4 Vertical Stress due to a Uniform Line Load 15.9.5 Vertical Stress due to Strip Load 15.9.6 Vertical Stress Distribution below Uniformly Loaded Circular Area 15.9.7 Vertical Stress under a Corner of a Rectangular Area 15.9.8 Vertical Stress at Any Point on a Rectangular Area 15.9.9 Westergaard’s Solution 15.9.10 Approximate Methods 15.10 Compaction 15.10.1 Standard Proctor Test 15.10.1.1 Compaction Curve 15.10.2 Modified Proctor Test 15.10.3 Factors Affecting Compaction 15.10.4 Relative Compaction and Compaction Control 15.11 Consolidation of Soils 15.11.1 Types of Consolidation 15.11.2 Consolidation of Undisturbed Specimen 15.11.2.1 Overconsolidation Ratio 15.11.3 Consolidation Test 15.11.3.1 Computation of Void Ratio 15.11.3.2 Consolidation Test Results 15.11.4 Basic Definitions 15.11.4.1 Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation 15.11.5 Settlement Analysis 15.12 Shear Strength 15.12.1 Stress at a Point: Mohr’s Circle of Stress 15.12.2 Mohr: Coulomb Theory 15.12.3 Modified Mohr: Coulomb Theory 15.12.4 Different Types of Tests and Drainage Conditions 15.12.4.1 Direct Shear Test 15.12.4.2 Triaxial Compression Test 15.12.4.3 Unconfined Compression Test 15.12.4.4 Vane Shear Test 15.13 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wall 15.13.1 Terminology 15.13.2 Applications of MSE Walls 15.13.3 Types of Systems 15.13.4 Facing Systems Used in MSE Walls 15.13.5 Types of Reinforcements Used in MSE Walls 15.14 Soil Nailing 15.14.1 Concept of Soil Nailing 15.14.1.1 Ground Condition Best Suited for Soil Nailing 15.14.1.2 Ground Condition Not Suited for Soil Nailing 15.14.2 Various Types of Soil Nailing 15.14.3 Elements of Soil Nail 15.15 Lateral Stress and Retaining Wall 15.15.1 Different Types of Lateral Earth Pressure 15.15.1.1 Variation of Pressure 15.15.2 Earth Pressure at Rest 15.15.3 Rankine’s Earth Pressure Theory 15.15.3.1 Active Earth Pressure 15.15.3.2 Passive Earth Pressure 15.15.3.3 Rankine’s Earth Pressure when the Surcharge is Inclined 15.15.3.4 Rankine’s Earth Pressure in Cohesive Soil 15.15.3.5 Active State 15.15.3.6 Passive State 15.15.4 Retaining Wall 15.15.4.1 Forces on Retaining Walls 15.16 Stability of Slopes and Landslides 15.16.1 Different Definitions of Factor of Safety 15.16.2 Stability of an Infinite Slope of Cohesionless Soils 15.16.3 Stability of an Infinite Slope of Cohesive Soils 15.16.4 Stability Charts 15.16.4.1 Uses of Stability Chart 15.16.5 Improving Stability of Slopes 15.16.6 Landslides 15.16.6.1 Classification of Earth Movement 15.16.6.2 Causes of Landslides 15.16.7 Effects of Landslides 15.16.7.1 Preventive Measures for Landslides Chapter 16 Foundation Engineering 16.1 Geotechnical Investigation and Report 16.1.1 Stages in Subsurface Explorations 16.1.2 Depth of Exploration 16.1.3 Borings for Exploration 16.1.3.1 Auger Boring 16.1.3.2 Washing Boring 16.1.3.3 Rotatory Drilling 16.1.3.4 Percussion Drilling 16.1.3.5 Core Drilling 16.1.4 Subsoil Investigation Report 16.2 In-Situ Soil Tests 16.2.1 Standard Penetration Test 16.2.2 Cone Penetration Test 16.3 Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundation 16.3.1 Basic Definitions 16.3.2 Mode of Shear Failure 16.3.3 Terzaghi’s Method of Analysis 16.3.3.1 Terzaghi’s Failure Criterion 16.3.3.2 Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Equation 16.3.4 Factors Affecting Ultimate Bearing Capacity 16.3.5 Effect of Water Table in Bearing Capacity 16.3.5.1 Teng’s Reduction Factor 16.4 Deep Foundation 16.4.1 Classification of Piles 16.4.2 Method of Determining Bearing Capacity of Piles 16.4.3 Group Action of Piles 16.4.4 Settlement of Pile Group 16.4.5 Negative Skin Friction 16.4.6 Types of Caissons Chapter 17 Traffic and Transportation Engineering 17.1 Properties of Traffic Engineering Elements 17.1.1 Human Variables Influencing Transportation 17.1.1.1 Variability 17.1.1.2 Basic Qualities 17.1.1.3 Response Time 17.1.1.4 Visual Keenness and Driving 17.1.1.5 Walking 17.1.2 Other Characteristics 17.1.3 Vehicle Factors 17.1.3.1 Design Vehicles 17.1.3.2 Vehicle Measurements 17.1.3.3 Weight, Axle Configuration 17.1.3.4 Turning Radius and Turning Path 17.1.3.5 Visibility 17.1.3.6 Acceleration Characteristics 17.1.3.7 Braking Performance 17.1.4 Road Factors 17.1.4.1 Road Surface 17.1.4.2 Lighting 17.1.4.3 Roughness 17.1.4.4 Pavement Colors 17.1.4.5 Night Visibility 17.1.4.6 Geometric Aspects 17.2 Highway Geometric Design 17.2.1 Factors Influencing the Geometric Designs 17.2.1.1 Design Speed 17.2.1.2 Topography 17.2.1.3 Traffic Factors 17.2.1.4 Design Hourly Volume and Capacity 17.2.1.5 Environmental and Other Factors 17.2.2 Passenger Car Unit 17.2.2.1 Components Influencing PCU Values 17.2.3 Pavement Surface Characteristics 17.2.3.1 Friction 17.2.3.2 Unevenness 17.2.3.3 Drainage 17.2.3.4 Camber 17.2.3.5 Right of Way 17.2.3.6 Width of Carriage Way 17.2.3.7 Kerbs 17.2.3.8 Roadway Width 17.2.4 Sight Distance 17.2.4.1 Stopping Sight Distance 17.2.4.2 Overtaking Sight Distance/Passing Sight Distance 17.2.5 Geometric Design Elements 17.2.5.1 Horizontal/Level Alignment 17.2.5.2 Vertical Alignment 17.2.6 Summit Curve 17.2.6.1 Design Ceasing 17.2.6.2 Length of Summit Curve 17.2.7 Valley Curve 17.2.7.1 Design Contemplations 17.2.7.2 Length of the Valley Curve 17.2.8 Intersection 17.2.8.1 Interchange 17.2.8.2 Channelized Intersection 17.2.8.3 Traffic Rotaries 17.3 Traffic Flow 17.3.1 Traffic Flow Variables 17.3.1.1 Speed 17.3.1.2 Flow 17.3.1.3 Density 17.4 Design of Traffic Facilities 17.4.1 Parking System 17.4.1.1 On-Street Parking 17.4.1.2 Off-Street Parking 17.4.1.3 Effects of Parking 17.4.1.4 Parking Statistics 17.4.2 Traffic Signs 17.4.2.1 Prerequisites 17.4.2.2 Communication Tools 17.4.2.3 Varieties of Traffic Signals 17.5 Pavement Engineering 17.5.1 Flexible Pavements 17.5.1.1 Design Parameters 17.5.1.2 Parts of Pavement 17.5.2 Rigid Pavements 17.5.2.1 Elements Affecting Pavement Design 17.5.2.2 Flexible Pavement Design 17.6 Pavement Analysis 17.6.1 Traffic and Loading 17.6.2 Equivalent Single-Wheel Load 17.6.3 Strength Characteristics of Pavement Materials 17.6.3.1 Tests on Soil 17.7 Pavement Design 17.7.1 IRC Method of Design of Flexible Pavements 17.7.1.1 Design Criteria 17.7.1.2 Design Methodology 17.7.1.3 Pavement Thickness Design Charts 17.7.1.4 Composition of Pavement 17.7.1.5 Group Index Technique 17.7.1.6 Data Required for Flexible Pavement Design 17.7.2 Rigid Pavement Design 17.7.2.1 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction 17.7.2.2 Relative Stiffness of Slab to Subgrade 17.7.2.3 Critical Load Positions 17.7.3 Wheel Load Stresses—Westergaard’s Stress Equation 17.7.3.1 Temperature Stresses 17.7.4 Design of Joints 17.7.4.1 Dowel Bars 17.7.4.2 Tie Bars 17.8 Highway Maintenance 17.8.1 Failures of Flexible Pavements 17.8.2 Failures in Rigid Pavements 17.8.2.1 Deficiency of Pavement Materials 17.8.2.2 Structural Inadequacy of Pavement System 17.8.2.3 Structural Cracking 17.9 Transport Economics 17.9.1 Scope of Transportation Economics 17.10 Intelligent Transport Systems 17.10.1 ITS User Services 17.10.2 ITS Architecture Chapter 18 Water Supply Engineering 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Quantity of Water 18.3 Sources of Water Supply 18.3.1 Surface Source 18.3.2 Subsurface Source 18.4 Pumps for Water Supply Project 18.4.1 Types of Pumps and Their Suitability 18.4.2 Centrifugal Pumps 18.4.2.1 Component Parts of Centrifugal Pump 18.4.2.2 Description 18.4.2.3 Working Principle 18.4.3 Operation and Maintenance 18.4.4 Selection of Pump Horse Power 18.4.4.1 Point to be Observed in Selecting a Pump 18.4.4.2 Horse Power of Pump 18.5 Quality of Water 18.5.1 Characteristics of Water 18.5.1.1 Physical Characteristics of Water 18.5.1.2 Chemical Characteristics 18.5.1.3 Biological Characteristics 18.6 Treatment of Water 18.6.1 Types of Treatment 18.6.2 Screening 18.6.3 Sedimentation 18.6.3.1 Plain Sedimentation 18.6.3.2 Sedimentation Aided with Coagulation 18.6.4 Filtration 18.6.5 Disinfection of Water 18.7 Coagulation of Water 18.7.1 Chemicals Used for Coagulation 18.8 Filtration of Water 18.8.1 Types of Filters 18.8.1.1 Slow Sand Gravity Filter 18.8.1.2 Rapid Sand Gravity Filter 18.8.1.3 Pressure Filter 18.9 Disinfection of Water 18.9.1 Methods of Disinfection 18.9.1.1 Physical Methods 18.9.1.2 Chemical Methods 18.9.2 Chlorination 18.9.2.1 Residual Chlorine and Chlorine Demand 18.9.2.2 Behavior of Chlorine in Water 18.9.2.3 Dosage of Chlorine 18.10 Softening of Water 18.10.1 Methods of Removing Temporary Hardness 18.10.1.1 By Boiling 18.10.1.2 Addition of Lime 18.10.2 Methods of Removing Permanent Hardness 18.10.2.1 Lime Soda Process 18.10.2.2 Zeolite Process 18.10.2.3 Demineralization 18.11 Miscellaneous Method for Water Treatment 18.11.1 Removal of Colors, Odors, and Tastes from Waters 18.11.1.1 Aeration 18.11.1.2 Treatment with Activated Carbon 18.11.1.3 Treatment with Copper Sulfate 18.11.1.4 Treatment with Oxidizing Agents 18.11.2 Removal of Salt and Dissolved Solids from Water 18.11.2.1 Electrodialysis 18.11.2.2 Ion Exchange Process 18.11.2.3 Reverse Osmosis 18.11.3 Removal of Iron and Manganese from Water 18.11.4 Removal of Fluorides from Water 18.11.4.1 Absorption by Activated Alumina 18.11.4.2 Ion Exchange Adsorption Method 18.11.4.3 Reverse Osmosis 18.12 Collection and Conveyance of Water 18.12.1 Intake Structure 18.12.1.1 Types of Intake Structures 18.13 Distribution System of Water 18.13.1 Requirement of a Distribution System 18.13.2 Layouts of Distribution System 18.13.3 System of Distribution 18.13.3.1 Gravity System 18.13.3.2 Pumping System 18.13.3.3 Combined Pumping and Gravity System 18.14 Pipe Appurtenances 18.14.1 Types of Valves 18.14.2 Water Meter 18.14.3 Fire Hydrants 18.15 Water Pollution Control and Water Management 18.15.1 Control of Water Pollution 18.15.1.1 Sewage Treatment 18.15.1.2 Industrial Waste Water Treatment 18.15.1.3 Agricultural Waste Water Treatment 18.15.1.4 Erosion and Sediment Control from Construction Sites 18.15.1.5 Control of Urban Runoff (Storm Water) 18.15.2 Water Management 18.15.2.1 Water Management Plans 18.16 Radioactivity and Water Supplies 18.16.1 Radiation Exposure through Drinking Water 18.16.2 Removal of Radioactivity in Water Chapter 19 Sanitary Engineering 19.1 Sanitary Engineering—An Introduction 19.2 Wastewater 19.2.1 Important Terms and Definitions 19.2.2 Sources of Sewage 19.3 Collection and Conveyance of Refuse (Wastewater) 19.3.1 Conservancy System or Dry System 19.3.2 Water Carriage System 19.3.2.1 Classification of Water Carriage System 19.4 Quantity of Sewage 19.4.1 Sources of Sanitary Sewage 19.4.1.1 Dry Weather Flow 19.4.2 Evaluation of Sewage Discharge 19.4.3 Variation in Sewage Flow 19.5 Construction of Sewers 19.5.1 Shapes of Sewer Pipes 19.5.2 Sewer Materials 19.5.3 Laying of the Sewer Pipes 19.5.4 Testing of Sewers 19.5.5 Backfilling the Trenches 19.6 Design of Sewer 19.6.1 Hydraulic Formula for Determining Flow Velocities in Sewers and Drains 19.6.2 Minimum and Maximum Velocities to be Generated in Sewers 19.6.2.1 Minimum Velocity 19.6.2.2 Maximum Velocity 19.6.3 Flow Variation Effects on Velocity in a Sewer 19.7 Sewer Appurtenances 19.7.1 Manholes 19.7.1.1 Classification of Manholes 19.7.1.2 Other Types of Manholes 19.7.2. Inverted Siphons 19.7.3 Storm Water Inlets 19.7.4 Catch Basins 19.7.5 Clean-Outs 19.7.6 Regulator or Overflow Device 19.7.7 Flap Gates and Flood Gates 19.7.8 Sewer Ventilators 19.7.9 Lamp Hole 19.8 Sewage Pumps 19.8.1 Types of Pumps 19.8.2 Pumping Station 19.9 House Drainage 19.9.1 Pipes 19.9.2 Traps 19.9.3 Sanitary Fittings 19.10 Quality of Sewage 19.10.1 Characteristics of Sewage 19.10.1.1 Physical Characteristics of Sewage 19.10.1.2 Chemical Characteristics of Sewage 19.10.1.3 Bacteriological Characteristics 19.10.2 Relative Stability 19.10.3 Population Equivalent 19.11 Natural Methods of Sewage Disposal 19.11.1 Disposal by Dilution 19.11.2 Disposal by Land Treatment 19.11.3 Self-Purification of Natural Waters 19.12 Primary Treatment of Sewage 19.12.1 Preliminary Treatment 19.12.2 Primary Treatment 19.13 Secondary Treatment (Filtration) of Sewage 19.13.1 Filters 19.14 Activated Sludge Process 19.14.1 Advantages of the Activated Sludge Process 19.14.2 Disadvantages of Activated Sludge Process 19.15 Sludge Treatment and Disposal 19.15.1 Methods of Sludge Disposal 19.16 Miscellaneous Methods of Sewage Treatment 19.17 Miscellaneous Topics 19.17.1 Biogas 19.17.2 Elutriation 19.17.3 Garbage Collection and Removal 19.17.4 Garbage Disposal 19.17.5 Micro-Organisms 19.17.6 Night Soil Disposal Without Water Carriage 19.17.7 Rural Sanitation Chapter 20 Environmental Engineering 20.1 The Environment 20.1.1 Components of Environment 20.2 Ecology and Ecosystem 20.2.1 Ecosystem 20.2.1.1 Structure and Function of an Ecosystem 20.2.1.2 Functions of Ecosystem 20.2.1.3 Food Chain 20.2.1.4 Types of Food Chain 20.2.2 Ecology 20.2.2.1 Hierarchical Ecology 20.2.2.2 Individual Ecology 20.2.2.3 Population Ecology 20.3 Air Pollution 20.3.1 Air Pollutants 20.3.2 Physical Forms of Pollutants 20.3.3 Sources of Air Pollution 20.3.4 Global Environmental Problems Due to Air Pollution 20.3.4.1 Global Warming 20.3.4.2 Ozone Depletion 20.3.4.3 Acid Rain 20.3.4.4 Indoor Air Pollution 20.3.5 Air Pollution Prevention and Control 20.4 Noise Pollution 20.4.1 Sources of Noise 20.4.2 Effect of Noise Pollution 20.4.3 Noise Control 20.4.3.1 Basic Technologies 20.5 Natural Resources and Population 20.5.1 Changes in Land and Resource Use 20.5.2 Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources 20.5.2.1 Renewable Resources 20.5.2.2 Nonrenewable Resources 20.5.3 Use and Overexploitation of Resources 20.5.3.1 Sustainable Water Management 20.5.4 Natural Resources and Associated Problems 20.6 Miscellaneous Topics of Environmental Engineering 20.6.1 Pipelines 20.6.2 Septic Tank 20.6.2.1 Construction of Small Septic Tanks 20.6.2.2 Care of Septic Tank and Subsurface Absorption Systems Chapter 21 Quantity Surveying and Valuation 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Type of Estimates 21.2.1 Preliminary Estimate or Approximate or Abstract or Rough Cost Estimate 21.2.2 Plinth Area Estimate 21.2.3 Cube Rate Estimate 21.2.4 Approximate Quantity Method Estimate 21.2.5 Detailed Estimate or Item Rate Estimate 21.2.6 Revised Estimate 21.2.7 Supplementary Estimate 21.2.8 Supplementary and Revised Estimate 21.2.9 Annual Repair or Maintenance Estimate (AR or AM Estimate) 21.3 Estimating Process 21.4 Taking Out Quantities 21.4.1 Methods of Taking Out Quantities 21.5 Modes and Unit of Measurement 21.6 Specifications 21.6.1 Types of Specifications 21.6.1.1 Brief Specification 21.6.1.2 Detailed Specification 21.6.2 Points to Be Included in the Specification 21.6.3 Typical Specification 21.6.3.1 Examples of General Specification 21.6.3.2 Examples of Detailed Material Specification 21.6.3.3 Examples of Detailed Works Specification 21.7 Market Survey 21.8 Rate Analysis 21.8.1 Purpose of Analysis of Rates 21.8.2 Factors Affecting the Rate Analysis 21.8.3 Task or Out-Turn Work 21.9 Estimates of Various Types of Buildings 21.10 Estimates of Different RCC Structures and Their Form Work 21.11 Estimates of Various Roof Types and Steel Structures 21.12 Estimates of Water Supply and Sanitary Works 21.12.1 Sanitary Works 21.12.2 Water Supply Works 21.13 Estimates of Culverts, Bridges, and Piers 21.13.1 Culverts 21.13.2 Culvert with Series of Piers 21.13 3 Steel Bridges 21.14 Estimates of Irrigation Works 21.15 Estimates on Road Work 21.16 Contracts and Tenders 21.16.1 Contract 21.16.1.1 Types of Contract 21.16.1.2 Termination of Contract 21.16.1.3 Earnest Money Deposit 21.16.1.4 Mobilization Funding 21.16.2 Tender 21.16.2.1 Classification of Tenders 21.16.2.2 Invitation Procedure for Tender 21.16.2.3 Opening of Tenders 21.16.2.4 Scrutiny of Tenders 21.16.2.5 Acceptance of Tender 21.16.2.6 Revocation of Tender 21.16.2.7 Unbalanced Tender 21.16.2.8 Liquidated Damages and Unliquidated Damages 21.16.2.9 Indirect vs. Direct Costs 21.17 Conditions of Contract 21.17.1 Typical Clauses of the Conditions of Contract 21.18 Arbitration 21.18.1 Arbitrator and Referee 21.18.2 Matters for Reference to Arbitration 21.18.3 Types of Arbitration 21.18.4 Sole Arbitrator, Joint Arbitrator, and Umpires 21.18.5 Powers of an Arbitrator 21.18.6 Arbitration Agreement 21.18.7 Power of Court to Appoint Arbitrator or Umpire 21.18.8 Arbitration Award 21.18.9 Advantages of Arbitration 21.18.10 Disadvantages of Arbitration 21.19 Accounts 21.19.1 Issue Notes 21.19.2 Vouchers 21.19.3 Administrative Approval and Technical Sanction 21.19.4 Measurement Book 21.20 Construction Management and Planning 21.20.1 Need for Construction Management 21.20.2 Factors Affecting Construction Management and Planning 21.20.3 Methods for Planning Construction Activity 21.20.3.1 Gantt Bar Charts 21.20.3.2 Critical Path Method 21.20.3.3 Program Evaluation and Review Technique 21.20.3.4 Time-Grid Diagram 21.20.4 Job Layout of Construction Site 21.20.5 Storage of Materials 21.20.6 Stock Control 21.20.6.1 ABC Analysis 21.20.6.2 VED Analysis 21.20.7 Stages of Material Management 21.20.8 Disposal of Surplus Materials 21.21 Cost, Price, and Value 21.21.1 Cost 21.21.2 Price 21.21.3 Value 21.21.3.1 Purpose of Valuation 21.21.3.2 Different Forms of Value 21.22 Mortgage, Freehold, and Leasehold Property 21.22.1 Types of Interests 21.22.2 Freehold Interests 21.22.3 Leasehold Interests 21.22.4 Mortgage 21.23 Outgoings and Net Income 21.23.1 Outgoings 21.23.2 Gross Income and Net Income 21.24 Easements 21.24.1 Types of Easement 21.24.2 Creation of Easements 21.24.3 Easement Rights 21.24.4 Terminating an Easement 21.25 Value of Licensed Premises 21.25.1 Valuation Tables 21.26 Depreciation 21.26.1 Depreciation as Cost in Operation 21.26.2 Depreciation as Decrease in Worth 21.26.3 Methods for Estimating Cost Depreciation 21.27 Standard Rent 21.28 Methods of Valuation 21.28.1 Methods of Valuation for Open Lands 21.28.2 Methods of Valuation for Lands with Buildings 21.29 Miscellaneous Topics 21.29.1 Accommodation Land and Accommodation Works 21.29.2 Amortization 21.29.3 Annuity 21.29.4 Capitalized Value 21.29.5 Cost Inflation Index 21.29.5.1 Calculation of Capital Gains Using CII 21.29.6 Deferred or Reversionary Land Value 21.29.7 Dilapidations 21.29.7.1 Causes of Building Dilapidation 21.29.8 Discounted Cash Flow 21.29.9 Encumbrance Factor 21.29.10 Floating FSI 21.29.11 Life of Structures 21.29.12 Mesne Protfis 21.29.12.1 Ingredients of Mesne Profit 21.29.13 Mobilization Fund 21.29.14 Rate of Interest 21.29.15 Rating Chapter 22 Sustainable Technology and Green Building 22.1 Environmental Issues 22.2 Carbon Trading 22.2.1 Emissions Trading 22.2.2 Trading in Project-Based Credits 22.2.3 Hybrid Trading Frameworks 22.3 Life Cycle Assessment 22.3.1 Goals and Purpose 22.3.2 Four Fundamental Stages 22.4 Energy Conservation 22.4.1 Energy Efficiency 22.4.2 Cutting Out Waste 22.4.3 Electric and Heat Energy 22.5 Renewable Energy Assets 22.5.1 Wind Power 22.5.2 Hydropower 22.5.3 Solar Energy 22.5.4 Geothermal Energy 22.5.5 Bioenergy 22.6 Introduction to Green Buildings 22.6.1 Goals of Green Buildings 22.7 Green Building Foundations 22.7.1 Green Foundation Transition 22.8 Ecological Design 22.8.1 Applications in Design 22.9 Assessing High-Performance Green Buildings 22.10 Assessment of Green Buildings 22.11 Green Building Rating Systems 22.11.1 Indian Green Building Council 22.11.2 Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment 22.11.3 Bureau of Energy Efficiency 22.12 The Green Building Design Process 22.13 The Sustainable Site and Landscape 22.14 Energy and Carbon Footprint Reduction 22.14.1 Ways to Lessen Carbon Impression 22.15 Built Environment Hydrologic Cycle 22.16 LCA of Building Materials and Products 22.17 Indoor Environmental Quality 22.18 Green Building Economics 22.18.1 Economic Benefits of Green Buildings 22.19 Sustainable Construction 22.19.1 Sustainable Materials in Construction Bibliography Index