Hydrogen Production, Storage, and Utilization: Technologies and Applications

Description

Hydrogen Production, Storage, and Utilization: Technologies and Applications presents a comprehensive and in-depth exploration of the scientific and engineering principles of hydrogen technology. Written in a technical and scientific manner, using rigorous scientific language and mathematical models to explain principles and applications, the book covers various aspects of hydrogen technology, ranging from fundamental principles of thermodynamics and kinetics to practical applications of hydrogen production, storage, and utilization. • Includes chapters on the latest advances in hydrogen production, including methods such as steam methane reforming, electrolysis, and biomass gasification. • Expresses the scientific principles of hydrogen storage, including metal hydrides, carbon-based materials, and liquid carriers. • Discusses the latest research on fuel cell technologies, including proton-exchange membrane fuel cells, solid oxide fuel cells, and microbial fuel cells. • Covers hydrogen safety aspects, including risk assessment, safety protocols, and safety standards. • Explores the challenges and opportunities associated with the deployment of hydrogen technology, including economic viability, environmental impact, and social acceptance. The book is intended for scientists, engineers, researchers, and graduate students in the fields of chemical engineering, materials science, renewable energy, and sustainability, as well as policymakers and stakeholders interested in the potential of hydrogen as a clean and renewable energy carrier. Cover Half Title Emerging Materials and Technologies Series Hydrogen Production, Storage, and Utilization: Technologies and Applications Copyright Contents Preface 1. Introduction 1.1 Hydrogen: Element of the Future in Sustainable Energy Solutions 1.1.1 Hydrogen Atoms 1.1.2 Different Types of Hydrogen 1.1.3 Clean and Efficient Hydrogen Production 1.1.4 Reducing Hydrogen Production Costs 1.1.5 The Energy Vector of Tomorrow 1.2 Storage, Transport, and Infrastructure 1.2.1 Safest and Most Efficient Means of Storing Large Quantities of Hydrogen 1.2.2 Methods of Safely and Economically Transporting Hydrogen over Long Distances 1.2.3 Infrastructure Required for Large-Scale Hydrogen Distribution 1.2.4 Integration of Hydrogen Refueling Stations into Existing Energy Networks 1.3 Utilization and Impacts of Hydrogen 1.3.1 Hydrogen Life Cycle 1.3.2 Environmental Impacts 1.3.2.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 1.3.2.2 Production Impact 1.3.2.3 Distribution and Storage 1.3.2.4 Impact on Natural Resources 1.3.2.5 Indirect Effects 1.3.3 Minimizing CO2 Emissions 1.3.4 The Role of Hydrogen in a Circular Economy 1.4 Safety, Awareness, and Technological Development 1.4.1 Risks Associated with Hydrogen Use 1.4.2 Safety Standards 1.4.2.1 ISO 22734 1.4.2.2 NFPA 2 1.4.2.3 ISO 19880-1 1.4.2.4 ISO 16111 1.4.2.5 ISO 16110 1.4.2.6 EN 17124 1.4.2.7 NFPA 55 1.4.2.8 NFPA 52 1.4.2.9 EN ISO 13985 1.4.3 Reducing Risks Associated with Hydrogen Handling 1.4.4 Public Awareness and Education 1.4.5 Strategies for Hydrogen Technology Development in Various Sectors 1.5 Government Policies and Future Vision 1.5.1 Essential Government Policies for Hydrogen Technology Development 1.5.1.1 United States 1.5.1.2 China 1.5.1.3 Japan 1.5.1.4 Europe 1.5.2 Likely Energy Landscape in 2050 and the Role of Hydrogen 1.5.3 Hydrogen Technology in Industry 4.0 and the Industry of the Future (Industry 5.0) 1.5.3.1 Industry 4.0 Characteristics and Hydrogen’s Role 1.5.3.2 Future Industry Landscape (Industry 5.0) 1.5.4 Role of Artificial Intelligence in Hydrogen Technology Development 1.5.4.1 AI Application in Hydrogen Technology 1.5.4.2 Enhancing Safety and Efficiency References 2. Hydrogen Production 2.1 Introduction To Hydrogen Production 2.1.1 Fundamentals and Context of Hydrogen Production 2.1.1.1 Energy Efficiency of Hydrogen Production 2.1.1.2 The Share of Hydrogen Produced from Renewable Sources 2.1.1.3 The Contribution of Hydrogen Production to the Transition to a Low-Carbon Economy 2.1.1.4 Countries Leading in Hydrogen Production 2.1.2 Advances in Technology and Innovation 2.1.2.1 Recent Progress in Hydrogen Production Technologies 2.1.2.2 Future Innovations for Sustainable and Efficient Hydrogen Production 2.1.3 Utilization and Integration of Hydrogen 2.1.3.1 The Main Applications of Hydrogen Once Produced 2.1.3.2 Integration of Hydrogen Production into Existing Energy Networks 2.1.4 Challenges, Policies, and Environmental Impacts 2.1.4.1 Environmental Challenges Associated with Hydrogen Production 2.1.4.2 Technical and Economic Challenges 2.1.4.3 Government Policies 2.1.4.4 Optimizing Hydrogen Production to Reduce Carbon Footprint 2.1.4.5 Potential Risks 2.1.5 Market, Industrial Players, and Future Perspectives 2.1.5.1 Major Industrial Players 2.1.5.2 Main Markets 2.1.5.3 Hydrogen Production Capacity 2.1.5.4 Main Sustainability Criteria 2.1.5.5 Infrastructure Requirements 2.2 Main Methods of Hydrogen Production 2.2.1 Steam Reforming 2.2.1.1 Chemical Mechanism 2.2.1.2 Kinetic Models 2.2.1.3 Thermodynamics of the Process 2.2.1.4 Types of Raw Material and Impact of Its Composition on the Process 2.2.1.5 Description of Main Equipment and Operational Conditions 2.2.1.6 Catalysts: Their Role, Influence, and Types 2.2.2 Partial Oxidation 2.2.2.1 Partial Oxidation Process and Its Applications 2.2.3 Water Electrolysis 2.2.3.1 Principles and Techniques of Electrolysis 2.2.3.2 Thermodynamics of Water Electrolysis 2.2.3.3 Different Types of Electrolysis Technologies 2.2.3.4 Factors Influencing the Efficiency of Electrolysis 2.2.3.5 Impact of Innovations in Electrode Materials on Electrolysis Efficiency 2.2.3.6 Environmental and Economic Challenges 2.2.3.7 The Cost of Hydrogen Production 2.2.3.8 Impact of Renewable Energy Integration on the Viability of Water Electrolysis 2.2.3.9 Security and Logistics 2.2.4 Hydrogen Production from Nuclear energy 2.2.4.1 Thermomechanical Water Splitting 2.2.4.2 High-temperature Electrolysis (HTE) 2.2.5 Hydrogen Production from Biomass 2.2.5.1 Basic Principle of Biomass Conversion to Hydrogen 2.2.5.2 Available Technologies for Hydrogen Production from Biomass 2.2.5.3 Biomass Pretreatment Methods to Optimize its Conversion to Hydrogen 2.2.5.4 Efficiency and Technical Challenges 2.2.5.5 Economic and Environmental Impacts 2.2.5.5.1 Improvement of Conversion Technologies 2.2.5.5.2 Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU) 2.2.5.5.3 Optimization of Biomass Pretreatment 2.2.5.5.4 Hybridization of Technologies 2.2.5.5.5 Management and Valorization of By-products 2.2.5.5.6 Sustainable Supply Chain Models 2.2.5.6 Policies and Market Viability 2.2.5.7 Future Perspectives and Stakeholder Engagement 2.2.6 Pyrolysis 2.2.6.1 Technical and Scientific Challenges 2.2.6.2 Applied Materials 2.3 Emerging Less Common Methods 2.3.1 Photoelectrolysis of Water 2.3.2 Biological Hydrogen Production (Biohydrogen) 2.3.3 Natural Hydrogen Production in Underground Reservoirs 2.3.4 Methanolysis 2.3.5 Ammonia Decomposition 2.3.6 Hydrocarbon Decomposition 2.3.7 Electrochemical Methanol Decomposition 2.3.8 Thermochemical Decomposition of Ammonia 2.3.9 Thermochemical Decomposition of Water 2.3.10 High-Temperature Electrolysis 2.3.11 High-pressure Electrolysis 2.3.12 Hydrogen Peroxide Decomposition 2.3.13 Reduction Electrolysis of Water (RED) 2.3.14 Carbon Dioxide Hydrogenation 2.3.15 Water Photoelectrolysis 2.3.16 Photobiology 2.3.17 Hydrogen from Industrial Waste 2.3.18 Hydrogen Production by Electrochemistry 2.4 Summary References 3. Hydrogen Storage 3.1 Introduction: General Context of Hydrogen Storage 3.2 Chemical Storage of Hydrogen 3.2.1 Physicochemical Phenomena 3.2.1.1 Adsorption 3.2.1.2 Absorption 3.2.1.3 Desorption or Dehydration 3.2.1.4 Hydride Formation Reactions 3.2.1.5 Catalysis 3.2.1.6 Diffusion Phenomena 3.2.1.7 Phase Changes and Structural Transitions 3.2.1.8 Thermal Phenomena 3.2.2 Different Methods of Chemical Storage 3.2.2.1 Metal Hydrides 3.2.2.2 Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers (LOHCs) 3.2.2.3 Ammonia (NH3) 3.2.2.4 Complex Hydrides 3.2.2.5 Borohydrides 3.2.2.6 Carbides 3.2.2.7 Hydrogen Storage in the Form of Formate 3.2.2.8 Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes 3.2.2.9 Comparison of Chemical Hydrogen Storage Methods 3.2.3 Mathematical Models of Chemical Hydrogen Storage 3.2.3.1 Sorption Models of Metal Hydrides 3.2.3.1.1 Van’t Hoff Model 3.2.3.1.2 Sieverts Model 3.2.3.1.3 Kinetic Sorption Model 3.2.3.1.4 Jander Diffusion Model 3.2.3.2 Kinetic Reaction Models 3.2.3.2.1 Fractional Order Reaction models 3.2.3.2.2 Langmuir–Hinshelwood model 3.2.3.2.3 Eley–Rideal Model 3.2.3.2.4 Temkin Model 3.2.3.3 Modeling Diffusion Processes 3.2.3.3.1 Fick’s Law 3.2.3.3.2 Diffusion-Permeation model 3.2.3.3.3 Sieverts Model 3.2.3.3.4 Diffusion with Trapping model 3.2.3.3.5 Models based on Quantum Mechanics 3.2.3.3.6 Thermodynamic Models 3.2.4 Analysis of Temperature and Pressure Effects on Chemical Hydrogen Storage 3.2.5 Performance Evaluation and Environmental Impact Management of Chemical Hydrogen Storage Systems 3.2.6 Challenges and Solutions for Effective Deployment of Chemical Hydrogen Storage 3.2.7 Integration and Impact of Chemical Hydrogen Storage in the Global Energy Transition 3.3 Physical Storage of Hydrogen 3.3.1 Physical Adsorption on High Surface Area Materials 3.3.1.1 Theoretical Aspects 3.3.1.2 Adsorption Models 3.3.1.3 Types of Adsorbents 3.3.1.3.1 Activated Carbons 3.3.1.3.2 Zeolites 3.3.1.3.3 Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) 3.3.1.3.4 Mesoporous Silica 3.3.1.3.5 Boron Carbide 3.3.1.3.6 Carbon Nanotubes 3.3.1.3.7 Polymer-based Adsorbents 3.3.1.3.8 Cryoadsorption 3.3.1.4 Comparison of Various Adsorbents for Physical Hydrogen Storage 3.3.2 Liquid Hydrogen Storage 3.3.2.1 The Mechanism of Hydrogen Liquefaction 3.3.2.2 Thermodynamic Models for Liquid Hydrogen Storage 3.3.2.2.1 Model Based on the van der Waals Equation of State 3.3.2.2.2 Model based on the Redlich–Kwong Equation of State 3.3.2.2.3 Evaporation Loss Model 3.3.2.2.4 Overall Thermal Balance 3.3.2.3 Available Technologies for Hydrogen Liquefaction 3.3.2.3.1 Claude Cycle 3.3.2.3.2 Joule–Thomson Cycle 3.3.2.3.3 Brayton Cycle 3.3.2.4 Different Types of Tanks Used for Cryogenic Storage 3.3.2.4.1 Double-walled Stainless Steel Tanks 3.3.2.4.2 Double-walled Aluminum Tanks 3.3.2.4.3 Vacuum Insulation Tanks (VLI) in Steel or Aluminum 3.3.2.4.4 Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composite Tanks 3.3.2.4.5 Solid Material Adsorption Tanks 3.3.2.5 The Liquid Hydrogen Industry 3.3.2.6 Recent Advances and Practical Applications in Cryogenic Storage 3.3.2.7 Environmental and Economic Considerations of Cryogenic Hydrogen Storage 3.3.3 Compressed Hydrogen Storage 3.3.3.1 Methods and Technologies for Hydrogen Compression for Storage and Transport 3.3.3.1.1 Piston Compressors 3.3.3.1.2 Diaphragm Compressors 3.3.3.1.3 Centrifugal Compressors 3.3.3.1.4 Screw Compressors (Rotary lobe) 3.3.3.1.5 Scroll Compressors 3.3.3.1.6 Liquid Ring Compressors 3.3.3.1.7 Electrochemical Compression 3.3.3.2 Different Types of Tanks Used for Compressed Hydrogen Storage 3.3.3.2.1 Hydrogen Storage Tank Type I 3.3.3.2.2 Hydrogen Storage Tank Type II 3.3.3.2.3 Hydrogen Storage Tank Type III 3.3.3.2.4 Hydrogen Storage Tank Type IV 3.3.3.3 Comparison Between Compressed Hydrogen Storage and Other Methods 3.3.3.4 Risks, Performance, and Challenges of Compressed Hydrogen Storage 3.3.3.5 Research, Innovation, and Perspectives in Compressed Hydrogen Storage References 4. Hydrogen Application 4.1 General Context: Application of Hydrogen in Various Industries 4.2 Oil Refining 4.3 Ammonia Production 4.4 Methanol Production 4.5 Metallurgical Industry 4.6 Electronics Industry 4.7 Food Industry 4.8 Glass Industry 4.9 Transportation Industry 4.9.1 Hydrogen Mobility 4.9.1.1 Definition and Functioning 4.9.1.2 Types of Vehicles Using Hydrogen as Fuel 4.9.1.3 Environmental Benefits 4.9.1.4 Infrastructure (Refueling Stations, Production, Distribution) 4.9.1.5 Key Industrial Players 4.9.1.6 Comparison with Other Clean Transport Technologies (Electric and Biofuels) 4.9.1.7 Current Examples of Cities or Countries Using Hydrogen Mobility on a Large Scale 4.9.1.8 Global Deployment Scenarios for Hydrogen Mobility by 2030 and 2050 4.9.2 Fuel Cell 4.9.2.1 Different Fuel Cell Types 4.9.2.2 Operating Principle of Fuel Cells 4.9.2.3 Advantages and Challenges of Fuel Cells Compared to Other Energy Sources 4.9.2.4 Future Prospects for Fuel Cells 4.10 Compressed Hydrogen Tank 4.10.1 Shape and Geometry of the Tanks 4.10.2 Components of Type IV Tank 4.10.2.1 Polymer Liner 4.10.2.1.1 High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) 4.10.2.1.2 Polyamide 11 (PA11) 4.10.2.1.3 Polyamide 12 (PA12) 4.10.2.1.4 Polyamide 6 (PA6) 4.10.2.2 Manufacturing Methods of the Liner 4.10.2.2.1 Extrusion-Blow molding 4.10.2.2.2 Rotational Molding 4.10.2.3 Composite Layer 4.10.2.3.1 Polyepoxy Matrix 4.10.2.3.2 Unsaturated Polyester Matrix 4.10.2.3.3 Thermoplastic Matrix 4.10.2.3.4 Carbon Fiber Reinforcement 4.10.2.3.5 Glass Fiber Reinforcement 4.10.2.4 Composite Manufacturing Methods 4.10.2.4.1 Filament Winding 4.10.2.4.2 Braiding 4.10.2.5 Metallic Insert 4.10.3 Main Characteristics of Type IV Compression Hydrogen Tank 4.10.3.1 Hydrogen Impermeability 4.10.3.2 Resistance to Very High Pressure 4.10.3.3 Theoretical Approaches 4.10.3.4 Damage and Failure Models 4.10.3.5 Experimental Approaches References 5. The Last Word Comprehensive Glossary of Hydrogen Technology Terms and Definitions Index