The Palgrave Handbook Of European Referendums

Description

This handbook provides an empirically rich analysis of referendums in Europe from the end of the Second World War to the present. It addresses a range of perennial theoretical and legal questions that face policy-makers when they offer citizens the chance to take or influence decisions by referendum, not least whether to accept the ‘will of the people’. Taking a multi-disciplinary approach, drawing on historical, philosophical and political science perspectives, the book includes a contextual section on the history of referendums, the theoretical questions underpinning their use, and on constitutional and legal questions about the use of referendums. The empirical sections are divided into those referendums that focus on domestic issues, such as constitutional matters or questions of social policy, and those related to the European Union, including membership referendums and treaty ratification. : Acknowledgments......Page 5 : Contents......Page 7 : Notes on Contributors......Page 11 : List of Figures......Page 19 : List of Tables......Page 21 1.1 Opening Remarks: A Case in Point......Page 23 1.2 Referendums, Plebiscites or Citizens’ Initiatives......Page 26 1.3 Aims of This Volume......Page 27 1.4 Outline of the Handbook......Page 29 1.5.1 Why Hold a Referendum if It Is Not Essential?......Page 32 1.5.2.1 Equality and Fairness......Page 33 1.5.2.2 Rules for Referendums......Page 34 1.5.2.3 Financial Rules......Page 36 1.5.2.5 The Role of Government......Page 37 1.5.2.6 Who Interprets the Rules and Ensures They Are Implemented?......Page 38 1.6.1 Experience of Referendums—This Is an Issue for Both Elites and Citizens......Page 39 1.6.2 Where Do Voters Acquire Objective Information?......Page 41 1.6.4 Declining Party Cues and the Demise of Deference......Page 42 1.6.5.1 Do Campaigns Matter?......Page 43 1.6.5.2 The Message and Messenger......Page 44 1.6.5.3 Circumstances Matter......Page 45 1.6.6.2 Parliament Versus the People......Page 46 Bibliography......Page 47 Part I Referendums in Theory and in Practice......Page 48 2 Referendums and Democratic Theory......Page 49 2.1 Benefits of Referendums and Difficulties of Doing Without Them......Page 52 2.2.1 Aggregation......Page 55 2.2.2 Deliberation......Page 57 2.2.3 Knowledge and Democracy......Page 58 2.2.5 Irresponsibility......Page 59 2.2.6 Majority Domination......Page 60 2.3.1 Embedding Referendums in Democratic Constitutionalism......Page 62 2.3.2 Embedding Referendums in Representative Institutions......Page 64 2.4 Conclusion......Page 65 References......Page 66 3.1 Introduction......Page 69 3.2 A Search for What? the Referendum as the History of an Idea......Page 70 3.3 Fulfilling Their Promise? The Use of Referendums in Practice......Page 74 3.4 Crisis Moments? Historical Legacies and the Memories of Referendums in Contemporary Europe......Page 79 Bibliography......Page 83 4 The Rules of Referendums......Page 87 4.1 Where Referendum Rules Sit......Page 88 4.2 When Referendums Take Place......Page 89 4.2.2 Referendums by Choice: Who, How and on What?......Page 90 4.2.3 Steps Before Calling a Referendum......Page 94 4.3.2 Setting the Question......Page 95 4.4.1 Binding or Advisory?......Page 96 4.4.2 What Threshold Is Required?......Page 98 4.5.1 The Role of Government......Page 100 4.5.2 Campaign Finance......Page 102 4.5.3 Media Balance......Page 103 4.6.1 Transparency of Who Is Saying What to Whom......Page 104 4.6.3 Provision of Information......Page 105 4.7 Enforcement......Page 106 References......Page 107 5 Referendums and Parliaments......Page 111 5.1.1 Subordination of Parliaments......Page 114 5.1.2 Non-decision-Making......Page 116 5.1.3 Rejection......Page 117 5.1.5 The Decision to Use Referendums......Page 121 5.2 Regulating Referendums......Page 125 Bibliography......Page 127 6 The Shifting Will of the People: The Case of EU Referendums......Page 129 6.1 Why Do We Observe Drastic Shifts During EU Referendum Campaigns?......Page 130 6.2 Why Do Some Arguments Gain More Traction Than Others?......Page 132 6.3 Why Does the No Side Have More Agenda-Setting Power Than the Yes Side?......Page 135 6.4 Why Are EU Referendum Outcomes Sometimes Reversed?......Page 142 6.5 The Brexit Puzzle......Page 145 Spain......Page 147 France......Page 148 Luxembourg......Page 149 Ireland......Page 150 Bibliography......Page 152 7 Two Hundred Years of Direct Democracy: The Referendum in Europe 1793–2018......Page 156 7.1 Referendums 1793–1900: A French Device......Page 157 7.2 Excursus: The Referendum in Switzerland in the Nineteenth Century......Page 160 7.3 Trends and Tendencies of European Referendums 1900–1944......Page 161 7.4 Referendums Under the Frozen Party System 1945–1989......Page 164 7.4.1 Ad Hoc Plebiscitary Referendums......Page 167 7.4.2 Policy-Defusing Referendums......Page 169 7.4.3 Referendums by Issue......Page 171 7.4.4 Referendums 1990–......Page 172 7.5 Conclusion......Page 176 Bibliography......Page 178 Part II Domestic Referendums......Page 181 8.1 Introduction......Page 182 8.2 Referendums in Belgium......Page 183 8.3 A Representative Democracy by Design......Page 184 8.4 An Unconstitutional Referendum?......Page 187 8.5 From Belgium to the European Union......Page 189 8.6 Concluding Remarks......Page 192 Bibliography......Page 193 9.1 A Short Long Story of the Referendum Since the Revolution......Page 196 9.2 The Decline of the Referendum as a Presidential Weapon Under the Fifth Republic......Page 199 9.3 Referendums in Practice......Page 201 9.3.1 The 1972 Referendum on the Accession of New Countries......Page 203 9.3.2 The 1992 Referendum on the Maastricht Treaty......Page 205 9.3.3 The 2005 Referendum on the European Constitutional Treaty......Page 208 9.4 Provisions and Legal Framework of Nationwide Referendums......Page 211 9.5 The Current Debate......Page 214 References......Page 218 10 The Referendum Experience in Switzerland......Page 220 10.2 Referendums as the Cornerstone of the Swiss Political System......Page 221 10.3 Referendum Votes in Practice......Page 223 10.4 Who Are the People?......Page 224 10.5 Mechanisms of Direct Democracy......Page 225 10.5.1 The Mandatory Referendum for Constitutional Changes......Page 226 10.5.3 The Citizens’ Initiative......Page 227 10.5.5 Finance Referendums......Page 228 10.6 Campaign Financing......Page 229 10.7 Frequency of Referendum Votes......Page 230 10.9.1 A Local Level, Cultural Issue: Language Spoken in Kindergarten......Page 231 10.9.3 National Level, Social Security and Public Finance, for a Temporary VAT Increase......Page 233 10.9.4 National Level, Public Finance, Reduction of Public Debt......Page 235 10.9.5 A National Level Referendum on Armed Forces: Abolition......Page 236 10.9.6 A National Level Initiative Against Minarets......Page 237 10.10 Concluding Remarks......Page 238 References......Page 239 11.1 The Limited British Experience with Referendums......Page 242 11.2 The Legal and Regulatory Framework......Page 245 11.3 The Devolution Referendums of 1979......Page 246 11.4 The Devolution Referendums of 1997......Page 251 11.5 Conclusions......Page 259 References......Page 261 12 The 1998 Good Friday (Belfast) Agreement Referendums in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland......Page 263 12.1.1 Previous Experience......Page 264 12.1.2 The Requirement of a Referendum......Page 265 12.2.1 Simultaneous Referendums in Two Jurisdictions......Page 266 12.2.2 Approving a Peace Accord......Page 267 12.2.4 Provision for a Future Referendum......Page 268 12.2.5 Differences in Rules......Page 269 12.3.1 Northern Ireland......Page 270 12.3.2 Ireland......Page 271 12.4.2 Ireland......Page 272 12.4.3 Northern Ireland......Page 273 12.4.4 Incentivising Support......Page 275 12.5.1 The Results......Page 276 12.6 Looking Ahead......Page 277 12.7 Conclusion......Page 279 References......Page 280 13.1 The Experience of Referendums in the United Kingdom......Page 282 13.2 The Legal Framework......Page 286 13.3 The Rules in Place......Page 289 13.4 The Referendum in Practice......Page 290 13.5 The Referendum and Domestic Politics......Page 296 References......Page 298 14.1 Introduction......Page 301 14.2 Devolution......Page 303 14.3 Onset......Page 305 14.4 Rules......Page 306 14.5 Campaign......Page 309 14.6 Outcome......Page 313 14.7 Fallout......Page 315 14.8 Conclusion......Page 317 References......Page 318 15 The 2017 Catalan Referendum in Comparative Perspective......Page 321 15.1 Catalonia the Briefest of Histories......Page 322 15.2 The Brief History of Independence Referendums......Page 324 15.3 The Referendum in Spanish Political History......Page 329 15.4 The Legal Position......Page 334 15.5 Conclusion......Page 336 References......Page 337 16 The Irish Referendums on Marriage Equality and Abortion......Page 339 16.1 The Historical, Legal and Political Framework for Referendums......Page 340 16.2 The Deliberative Turn in Referendum Practice: Marriage and Abortion......Page 346 16.3 Parliamentary Politics and Campaign Agitation......Page 347 16.3.1 Who Voted Yes?......Page 351 16.4 Reflections on the Irish Referendum Experience......Page 352 Bibliography......Page 354 17.1.1 ‘Reform’ of the Constitution: An Ancient Debate and the Other Side the Medal......Page 357 17.1.2 The Political Context, Parties and Party System: From the ‘Golden Age’ of Party Democracy to the ‘Apocalypse’ of Democracy......Page 360 17.1.3 Democratizations and Referenda Experiences......Page 362 17.1.4 Types of Initiatives and Referendums......Page 363 17.2.1 Plebiscites?......Page 369 17.3.1 As a Premise......Page 371 17.3.2 Constitutional Law......Page 374 17.3.3 Parties, Party System and Referendum Popular Vote......Page 376 17.3.4 The Transition That Failed......Page 382 17.3.5 The Populist Change......Page 384 17.4 Final Considerations......Page 385 References......Page 388 18.1 Introduction......Page 399 18.2.1 The Political Debate......Page 402 18.2.2 The ‘Yes’ Camp......Page 405 18.2.3 The ‘No’ Camp......Page 408 18.3 Conclusion......Page 411 Bibliography......Page 413 19.1 Introduction: Referendums in Turkey......Page 418 19.2 Legal Stipulations on the Referendums in Turkey......Page 420 19.3 The Campaign and the Vote: Issues and the Political Milieu......Page 423 19.4 The Repercussions of the Referendum: Turkey and Her International Relations......Page 433 19.5 Conclusion......Page 435 Bibliography......Page 437 Part III EU-Related Referendums......Page 440 20.1 Introduction......Page 441 20.2.1 The Political Background......Page 443 20.2.2 The Constitutional Provisions......Page 444 20.2.3 The Campaigns......Page 447 20.2.4 Public Opinion......Page 452 20.2.5 The Referendum Result......Page 454 20.3 A French Detour......Page 456 Bibliography......Page 457 21.1 Introduction......Page 460 21.2 Referendums and Democracy......Page 461 21.3 The Legal Framework on Referendums in Norway......Page 463 21.4 For Determining Each Referendum, What Rules Were in Place?......Page 465 21.5 The Practice of the Referendums......Page 466 21.6 The Effects on Norwegian Politics......Page 470 21.6.2 Norway’s Distinct Europeanisation Paradox......Page 473 21.7 Concluding Remarks......Page 475 References......Page 476 22.1 Introduction......Page 480 22.2 Leading or Leaving? the UK’s European Relations......Page 481 22.3 Legal Framework......Page 485 22.4 The Rules of the Game......Page 488 22.5.1 What Was at Stake?......Page 490 22.5.2 The Campaigners......Page 492 22.5.3 The Issues......Page 493 22.5.4 Funding......Page 496 22.5.5 The Media......Page 497 22.5.6 The Outcomes......Page 499 22.6 Consequences for British Politics......Page 500 22.7 Consequences for European Politics......Page 501 22.8 Concluding Remarks......Page 502 Bibliography......Page 503 23 The EFTA Enlargement......Page 506 23.1 The Historical Context......Page 507 23.2 The Referendum Experience......Page 510 23.3 The Legal Frameworks......Page 511 23.4 The Campaigns......Page 512 23.4.1 Austria......Page 514 23.4.2 Sweden......Page 515 23.4.3 Finland......Page 516 23.5 The Arguments......Page 517 23.5.1 The Results......Page 519 23.6 Conclusion......Page 520 Bibliography......Page 521 24.1 Introduction......Page 523 24.2 Enlargement Rounds and Accession Referendums......Page 524 24.2.1 The First Enlargement Wave and the Birth of the Accession Referendum......Page 526 24.2.2 Southern European Enlargement & Avoiding the Accession Referendum......Page 528 24.2.3 The Nordic and Austrian Enlargement Round......Page 529 24.2.4 The ‘Big Bang’ Enlargement......Page 531 24.2.4.3 Hungary......Page 532 24.2.4.6 Poland......Page 533 24.2.4.8 Estonia and Latvia......Page 534 24.2.4.9 Cyprus......Page 535 24.2.5 The Post-2004 Enlargement Rounds......Page 536 24.3 Mapping the Accession Referendum......Page 537 24.4 Conclusion......Page 540 References......Page 542 25.1 Introduction......Page 546 25.2 The Danish History of Referendums......Page 547 25.3.1 The Non-ratification of the Treaty of Maastricht in June 1992......Page 548 25.3.2 ‘Maastricht Without Thorns’—The Edinburgh Agreement and the Yes Vote in May 1993......Page 550 25.3.3 From a No to a Yes—Explanations of the Different Outcomes......Page 552 25.4.1 Replacing the JHA Opt-Out with a New Opt-In......Page 555 25.4.2 Explaining the No Vote in the JHA Opt-In Referendum......Page 558 25.5 Conclusions—Denmark as the Home of Issue-Voting......Page 559 References......Page 560 26.1 Introduction......Page 562 26.2 The Swedish Experience of National Referendums......Page 563 26.3 The Referendum Campaign 2003......Page 566 26.4 The Death of Anna Lindh......Page 568 26.5 Why Sweden Voted No to the Euro......Page 569 26.6 Concluding Remarks: The Swedish Experience of National Referendums......Page 570 References......Page 571 27.1 Introduction......Page 572 27.2 Nice......Page 573 27.3 Irish Voters Say No Again......Page 574 27.3.1 Buying Time at Home......Page 575 27.3.2 The EU Level Strategy......Page 577 27.4.1 Punishment or Issue on Its Merits......Page 580 27.4.2 Mobilisation......Page 581 27.4.3 Research......Page 583 27.4.4 Framing the Debate......Page 584 27.4.5 Framing and Delivering the Message......Page 585 27.4.6 Delivering the Message......Page 586 27.5 Winning the Referendum......Page 587 27.6 Conclusions......Page 588 References......Page 589 28 The French and Dutch Block the Constitutional Treaty......Page 591 28.1 Background: The Discursive and Political Contexts......Page 592 28.1.1 The Context in France......Page 594 28.1.2 The Context in The Netherlands......Page 596 28.2 The Campaigns: Actors, Dynamics, Issues......Page 598 28.2.1 Argumentative and Discursive Strategies......Page 600 28.3 Explanations of the Vote......Page 602 28.4 Conclusion......Page 604 References......Page 606 29 Swiss Votes on Europe......Page 609 29.1 The European Question in Swiss Politics......Page 611 29.2 The Selection......Page 614 29.3.1 Towards the EEA......Page 616 29.3.2 Seeking a New Settlement 1993–1999......Page 618 29.3.3 2000–2009: Installing the Bilaterals......Page 621 29.3.4 2009–2018 New Questions......Page 625 29.4 Direct Democracy and Swiss European Policy Reconsidered......Page 629 Bibliography......Page 630 30.1.1 Constitutional History in a Nutshell......Page 633 30.1.2 A Rare and Undemocratic Use of the Referendum......Page 634 30.2.1 The Constitutional Enshrinement of Referendums......Page 635 30.2.2 General Provisions for Holding a Referendum; Law 4023/2011......Page 637 30.3.1 Contextualisation of the 2015 Referendum......Page 638 30.3.2 A Chronicle of the Referendum......Page 640 30.3.3 The Result and the Outcome......Page 645 30.4.1 An Inappropriate Question......Page 646 30.4.2 Can Fiscal Matters Be Put to the Popular Vote?......Page 647 30.4.3 Too Short a Time Interval......Page 648 30.4.5 Indefinite Outcome of the Result......Page 649 30.5.1 The Caricatural Nature of the 2015 Referendum......Page 650 30.6 Drawing Conclusions for the Future......Page 652 References......Page 653 31.1 Introduction......Page 657 31.2 Referendums and European Integration......Page 659 31.3 The Hungarian Political Landscape......Page 660 31.4 Referendum Experience in Hungary......Page 661 31.5 The Legal Framework Governing Referendums......Page 663 31.6 Why Hold a Referendum?......Page 665 31.7 The Campaigns......Page 667 31.8 The Result......Page 670 31.9 Conclusion: Consequences for Hungary and the EU......Page 672 References......Page 673 32.1 Introduction......Page 678 32.2.2 1900s: Nationwide Referendums Regularly Discussed but Never Held......Page 679 32.2.2.1 2000s: Referendums on the Constitutional Treaty, Ukraine and the Intelligence Services......Page 681 32.3.1 Procedural Issues......Page 683 32.3.2 Rules for the 2016 Referendum......Page 684 32.4.1 Triggering the First Nationwide Advisory Referendum......Page 685 32.4.2 A Lacklustre Campaign......Page 687 32.4.3 Campaign Issues......Page 690 32.4.4 Explaining the Vote......Page 691 32.5 The Aftermath of the Vote......Page 692 32.6 Concluding Remarks......Page 696 References......Page 698 33.1 Introduction......Page 701 33.2 Explaining Referendum Voting......Page 702 33.3.1 Unified Patent Court 2014......Page 706 33.3.2 Opt-Out on Justice and Home Affairs 2015......Page 708 33.4 Issue-Voting or Second-Order Voting?......Page 710 33.5 Conclusions......Page 714 References......Page 715 Index......Page 717