Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems for Remote Telecommunication Stations

Description

This book looks at the challenge of providing reliable and cost-effective power solutions to expanding communications networks in remote and rural areas where grid electricity is limited or not available. It examines the use of renewable energy systems to provide off-grid remote electrification from a variety of resources, including regenerative fuel cells, ultracapacitors, wind energy, and photovoltaic power systems, and proposes a powerful hybrid system that can replace the need and high operation costs of batteries and diesel powered electric generators. Analyzes types of communications stations and their rate of consumption of electrical power;Presents brief descriptions of various types of renewable energy;Investigates renewable energy systems as a source for powering communication stations. Preface Abbreviations Contents Chapter 1: Introduction and Literature Review 1.1 Background 1.2 Motivation 1.3 Problem Definition 1.4 Renewable Energy Sources 1.4.1 Wind Energy 1.4.2 Solar Energy 1.4.3 Hydraulics 1.4.4 Geothermal Energy 1.4.5 Biomass 1.5 Review of Related Work 1.6 Approach 1.7 Book Outlines 1.8 Summary Chapter 2: Analyze the Types of Communication Stations 2.1 Cellular Networks 2.2 Wired Networks Energy Consumption 2.3 Summary Chapter 3: Regenerative Fuel Cells as a Backup Power Supply 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Types of Fuel Cells 3.2.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane FC (PEMFC) 3.2.2 Molten Carbonate FC (MCFC) and Solid Oxide FC (SOFC) 3.2.3 Phosphoric Acid Electrolyte FC (PAFC) and Alkaline FC (AFC) 3.2.4 Direct Methanol FC (DMFC) 3.2.5 Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) 3.2.6 Zinc-Air Fuel Cell (ZAFC) 3.2.7 Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cell (PCFC) 3.2.8 Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) 3.2.9 Regenerative Fuel Cells 3.3 Principles of Regenerative Fuel Cells 3.3.1 Discrete Regenerative Fuel Cells (DRFC) 3.3.2 Unitized Regenerative Fuel Cells 3.4 Efficiency of Regenerative Fuel Cell 3.5 Methodology and Emphasis 3.5.1 Hydrogen Production Estimation 3.5.2 Oxygen Production Estimation 3.5.3 Hydrogen Usage in the Fuel Cell Part 3.5.4 Air Usage in Fuel Cell Part 3.5.5 Air Exit Flow Rate 3.6 Hydrogen Storage 3.7 Materials Balance in DRFC 3.7.1 Hydrogen Balance 3.7.2 Water Balance 3.7.3 Oxygen Balance 3.8 Summary Chapter 4: Optimum Sizing of Ultracapacitors 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Ultracapacitor Characteristics 4.2.1 Temperature Dependency 4.2.2 Voltage Dependency Ultracapacitor Stacking 4.3 Ultracapacitor Electrical Models 4.3.1 RC Serial Model 4.3.2 First-Order Model for UC 4.4 Methodology of UC Sizing 4.4.1 Simple Sizing of UC 4.4.2 Accurate Sizing Temperature Effect 4.4.3 UC Sizing Using Artificial Neural Networks 4.5 Case Study and Applications 4.5.1 Results of Simple Sizing 4.5.2 Results of Accurate Sizing 4.5.3 Comparative Study Between Simple Sizing and Accurate Sizing of UC 4.5.4 ANN Results for Detecting UC Suitable Type 4.6 Summary Chapter 5: Design and Sizing of Photovoltaic Power Systems 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Estimation of Total Solar Radiation on an Inclined Surface 5.2.1 Estimation of Daily Beam Radiation () 5.2.2 Estimation of Ground Reflection Radiation () 5.2.3 Estimation of Diffused Sky Radiation () 5.3 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) in Photovoltaic Power System 5.3.1 Optimum Solar cells Area (OSCA) Estimation for PVPS 5.3.2 Final Solar Cells Area Required 5.4 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) 5.4.1 MPPT Algorithms Classification Neural Networks 5.5 On-Grid Photovoltaic Power Systems 5.5.1 DC-DC Converters Functions of DC-DC Converters The Buck (Step-Down) Converter The Boost (Step-Up) Converter Buck-Boost Converter 5.5.2 Inverters Single-Phase Bridge Inverters Multi-Level Inverters Three-Phase Full-Bridge VSI 5.6 General Control Grid-Connected PV Systems 5.7 Results and Discussions 5.7.1 Estimation of Hourly Radiation on Tilted Surfaces Radiation and Climate Data 5.7.2 Estimation of the Optimum Number of Solar Panels 5.7.3 Rates of Hydrogen Production and Usage in PVPS 5.7.4 Final Solar Cells Area, FSCA, and the Number of Solar Panels 5.7.5 ANN Results for Determining the Duty Cycle 5.8 Summary Chapter 6: Design and Sizing Wind Energy System 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Wind Turbines 6.2.1 Basic Components of a Wind Turbine System 6.2.2 Modeling of Wind Turbines Power Output from an Ideal Turbine Theoretical Maximum Power Extractable from the Wind Practical Power Extractable from the Wind and Power Coefficient Efficiency Considerations of Wind-Powered Electricity Generation 6.3 Wind Parameter 6.3.1 Wind Speed 6.3.2 Wind Classes 6.3.3 Wind Shear 6.3.4 Weibull Distribution 6.3.5 Wind Turbine Power Output Cut-in Wind Speed, uc Rated Wind Speed, ur Cut-Out Wind Speed, uf 6.4 Average Power Output and Average Number of Wind Turbine Generators 6.5 Design Algorithms 6.5.1 Upgrading Wind Velocities to Hub Height 6.5.2 Evolution of Weibull Parameter (C and K) 6.5.3 Evolution of the Capacity Factor, CF, and ANWTG 6.5.4 Energy Balance Study and the Optimum Number of WTG 6.6 Stand-Alone (Off-Grid) Wind Power System 6.7 On-Grid Wind Energy Systems 6.7.1 AC/DC Converters (Rectifiers) 6.8 Results and Discussions 6.8.1 ANN Results for Determining Duty Cycle 6.9 Summary Chapter 7: Optimum Sizing and Design of Renewable Energy System 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Hybrid System Description 7.2.1 The Load Demand Model 7.2.2 Solar Panel 7.2.3 Wind Turbine 7.2.4 Regenerative Fuel Cell 7.2.5 Ultracapacitor 7.2.6 Converters and Controllers 7.2.7 Energy Management and Operation Strategy 7.3 System Cost Analysis 7.3.1 Problem Statement 7.3.2 Cost Estimation 7.4 Methodology and Constraints 7.4.1 PSO Optimization Algorithm 7.5 Results and Discussions 7.5.1 Analytic Methods 7.5.2 PSO Results and Discussion 7.6 Summary Chapter 8: Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Work 8.1 Discussions and Conclusions References Index