Colon Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy: Volume 2

Description

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a major global health challenge as the third leading cause for cancer related mortalities worldwide. Despite advances in therapeutic strategies, the five-year survival rate for CRC patients has remained the same over time due to the fact that patients are often diagnosed in advanced metastatic stages. Drug resistance is another common reason for poor prognosis. Researchers are now developing advanced therapeutic strategies such as immunotherapy, targeted therapy, and combination nanotechnology for drug delivery. In addition, the identification of new biomarkers will potentiate early stage diagnosis. This book is the second of three volumes on recent developments in colorectal diagnosis and therapy. Each volume can be read on its own, or together. Each volume focuses on different novel therapeutic advances, biomarkers, and identifies therapeutic targets for treatment. Written by leading international experts in the field, coverage addresses the role of diet habits and lifestyle in reducing gastrointestinal disorders and incidence of CRC. Chapters discuss current and future diagnostic and therapeutic options for colorectal cancer patients, focusing on immunotherapeutics, nanomedicine, biomarkers, and dietary factors for the effective management of colon cancer. Preface Contents About the Editors Chapter 1: Application of Single Cell Technology in Colorectal Cancer 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Isolation Methods for Single Cells and Recent Developments in Single Cell Techniques 1.2.1 Single Cell Genome (DNA) Sequencing 1.2.2 Single Cell Transcriptome (RNA) Sequencing 1.2.3 Single Cell Epigenome Sequencing: DNA Methylation and Histone Sequencing 1.3 Applications 1.4 Conclusion References Chapter 2: Dietary Habits and Global Incidence of Colon Cancer 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Difference in Dietary Habits 2.2.1 The Western Diet 2.2.2 Mediterranean Diet (MeD) 2.2.3 African Diet 2.2.4 Asian Diet 2.2.4.1 Chinese Diet 2.2.4.2 Japanese Diet 2.3 Fruits and Vegetables (F&V) 2.3.1 Dietary Fiber 2.4 Grains 2.5 Meat 2.6 Carcinogens Produced by Cooking Methods 2.6.1 Barbecue (BBQ)/Grilling 2.6.2 Frying 2.6.3 Roasting 2.7 Carcinogen from Food Processing 2.8 Carcinogen from Food Preservation 2.8.1 Salt 2.8.2 Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) 2.9 Carcinogen from Pesticide Uses 2.10 Environment Pollutants 2.10.1 Aflatoxins (AFB1) 2.11 Carcinogen from Water 2.12 Role of Lifestyle Factors 2.12.1 Obesity 2.12.2 Physical Inactivity 2.12.3 Alcohol Consumption 2.12.4 Smoking 2.13 Immune Status 2.14 Conclusion References Chapter 3: Diet and Colon Cancer: A Comprehensive Review 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Role of Nutrients in CRC 3.3 Calcium 3.4 Vitamin D 3.5 Dietary Fiber 3.6 Foods 3.7 Meat 3.8 Dairy Products 3.9 Fruits and Vegetables 3.10 Whole Grain 3.11 Dietary Pattern 3.12 Conclusion and Future Direction References Chapter 4: Recent Therapeutic Strategies for the Treatment of Colon Cancer 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Molecular Aspects of Colon Cancer 4.3 Diagnostic and Therapeutic Targets of Colorectal Cancer 4.3.1 Treatment Approaches to Colon Cancer 4.3.1.1 Conventional Methods Surgery/Polypectomy Radiation Therapy Chemotherapy Targeted Therapy 4.3.1.2 Advanced Approaches to Treat Colon Cancer Immunotherapy Cancer Vaccines Cellular Therapies Gene Therapies Combination Therapies Nutritional Supplement Therapies References Chapter 5: Role of Bacteria in the Development of Cancer 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Bacterial Factors Involved in Cancer Development 5.2.1 Cell Surface Components 5.2.2 Bacterial Toxins 5.2.3 Bacterial Effector Proteins 5.2.4 Other Factors 5.3 Bacterial Species Involved in Colon Cancer Development 5.3.1 Escherichia coli 5.3.2 Salmonella enterica 5.3.3 Fusobacterium nucleatum 5.3.4 Bacteroides fragilis 5.3.5 Streptococcus gallolyticus 5.3.6 Enterococcus faecalis 5.4 Conclusions References Chapter 6: Role of Bacterial Infection (H. pylori) in Colon Carcinogenesis and Therapeutic Approaches 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Colorectal Polyp 6.1.2 Microflora 6.1.3 Helicobacter pylori 6.1.4 Classification 6.2 Pathogenesis: Helicobacter pylori 6.2.1 Colonization and Chronicity 6.2.2 Gastric Barrier Disruption 6.2.3 Colon Cancer: Pathogenesis of H. pylori 6.2.3.1 Gastrin 6.2.3.2 Cytotoxin-Associated Antigen (CagA) 6.2.3.3 Vacuolating Cytotoxin A (VacA) 6.2.3.4 Outer Membrane Vesicles (OMVs) 6.2.4 Colon Polyps and Metabolic Syndrome in H. pylori Infection 6.3 Transmission of Helicobacter pylori 6.4 Diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori Infection 6.4.1 Endoscopic Imaging 6.4.2 Molecular Methods 6.4.3 Histology 6.4.4 Rapid Urease Test (RUT) 6.4.5 Urea Breath Test (UBT) 6.4.6 Serology 6.4.7 Stool Antigen Tests (SATs) 6.5 Helicobacter pylori Infection: Therapy 6.5.1 Dual Therapy 6.5.2 Triple Therapy 6.5.3 Quadruple, Concomitant, Sequential, and Hybrid (QCSH) Therapies 6.5.4 Levofloxacin-Based Therapy 6.5.5 Bismuth-Based Therapy 6.5.6 Rifabutin, Furazolidone, and Sitafloxacin 6.5.7 Probiotics 6.5.8 Vonoprazan 6.6 Antibiotic Resistance 6.7 Impact of H. pylori Eradication on Gut Microbiota 6.8 Vaccines 6.8.1 Optimization of the Delivery System 6.8.2 Clinical Trial Vaccine 6.9 Conclusion References Chapter 7: Diagnosis of Colorectal Cancer Using Molecular Techniques 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Epidemiology 7.3 Risk Factors 7.3.1 Ageing 7.3.2 Gender 7.3.3 Ethnicity 7.3.4 Hereditary Factors 7.3.5 Environmental and Dietary Factors 7.3.6 Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Primary Sclerosing Colingitis 7.3.7 Other Risk Factors 7.4 Current Screening Guidelines of CRC for Asymptomic, Average-Risk Individuals 7.5 Molecular Basis of CRC 7.5.1 Tumour Suppressor Genes 7.5.2 Oncogenes 7.5.3 Mismatch Repair Genes 7.6 Other Biomarkers 7.7 Mutator-Phenotype Pathways of CRC 7.7.1 The Chromosomal Instability Pathway 7.7.2 The Microsatellite Instability Pathway 7.7.3 The CPG Island Methylator (CIMP) Pathway 7.8 Methods of Molecular Testing in CRC 7.9 Clinical Implications of Molecular Biomarker Testing in CRCs 7.10 Conclusion References Chapter 8: Nanotechnology Approaches for Colorectal Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Nanomedicines/Nanodevices for Colorectal Cancer Treatment 8.2.1 Organic Nanomaterials for Colon Cancer Therapies 8.2.1.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles 8.2.1.2 Liposomes 8.2.1.3 Dendrimers 8.2.1.4 Polymeric Micelles (PMs) 8.2.2 Inorganic Nanomaterials for Colon Cancer Therapies 8.2.2.1 Carbon Nanotubes 8.2.2.2 Nanoshells 8.2.2.3 Fullerene Derivatives 8.2.2.4 Silica Nanoparticles 8.3 Conclusions References Chapter 9: Natural Products as Immunomodulatory and Chemosensitizing Agents in Colon Cancer Treatment 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Immune Surveillance: Basic Mechanism and Biological Function 9.2.1 Elimination 9.2.2 Equilibrium 9.2.3 Escape 9.3 Immunomodulation and Chemosensitization of Colon Cancer 9.3.1 Curcumin 9.3.1.1 Curcumin as a Chemosensitizer 9.3.1.2 Immunomodulatory Effect of Curcumin 9.3.2 Resveratrol 9.3.2.1 Chemosensitizing Effect of Resveratrol 9.3.2.2 Immunomodulatory Effect of Resveratrol 9.3.3 EGCG 9.3.3.1 EGCG as a Chemosensitizer 9.3.3.2 Immunomodulatory Effect of EGCG 9.4 Conclusion 9.5 Future Directions References Chapter 10: Role of DNA Mismatch Repair Genes in Colorectal Cancer 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Mismatch Repair (MMR) Mechanism 10.3 Role of MMR Deficiency in Developing CRC 10.4 Approaches for Identifying Deficient MMR 10.5 Management of the Deficient MMR System in CRC 10.6 Defective Mismatch Repair in Response to Targeted Therapies References Chapter 11: Targeting of Aerobic Glycolysis: An Emerging Therapeutic Approach Against Colon Cancer 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Role of Aerobic Glycolysis in Colon Cancer Progression 11.2.1 Glycolysis as an Instant Source of Energy and Macromolecular Precursors 11.2.2 Signaling Pathways Responsible for Reprogrammed Glucose Metabolism in Colon Cancer 11.2.3 Role of the Glycolytic Nature of Colon Cancer Cells in Chemoresistance 11.2.4 Aerobic Glycolysis in the Development of an Efficient Antioxidant System 11.2.5 Role of Glycolysis-Induced Acidosis in Colon Cancer Progression 11.3 Is Glycolysis an Appropriate Therapeutic Target for Colon Cancer Treatment? 11.4 Targeting the Glycolytic Pathway for Colon Cancer Treatment 11.4.1 Glycolytic Inhibitors: Promising Future Therapeutic Options for Clinical Management of Colon Cancer 11.4.2 Phytochemicals with Anti-glycolytic Potential in Colon Cancer Treatment 11.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References Chapter 12: An Insight into the Therapeutic Potential of Phytochemicals for Colorectal Cancer: Latest Perspective 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Curcumin 12.2.1 Gallic Acid 12.3 Apigenin 12.4 Ellagic Acid 12.5 Sulforaphane 12.6 Allicin 12.7 Resveratrol 12.8 Conclusion References Chapter 13: Seaweeds: Potential Candidates in Human Colon Cancer Therapy 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Secondary Metabolites from Seaweeds 13.2.1 The Bioactive Compounds Derived from the Brown Algae and Their Application in Colon Cancer 13.2.1.1 Laminarin 13.2.1.2 Fucoidan 13.2.1.3 Meroterpenoid 13.2.1.4 Fucoxanthin 13.2.2 The Bioactive Compounds Isolated from the Green Algae and Their Application in Colon Cancer 13.2.3 The Bioactive Compounds from the Red Algae and Their Application in Colon Cancer 13.2.3.1 Extract of Lithothamnion calcareum 13.2.3.2 Dactylone 13.2.3.3 Porphyra haitanensis Polysaccharides (PHPs) 13.2.3.4 Lophocladines 13.2.3.5 Methanolic Extract of Plocamium telfairiae 13.2.4 Structure and Pharmacokinetics of the Chemotherapeutic Drugs Commonly Used for Colon Cancer 13.2.4.1 Structure and Pharmacokinetics of Irinotecan 13.2.4.2 Structure and Pharmacokinetics of Oxaliplatin 13.2.4.3 Structure and Pharmacokinetics of Capecitabine 13.2.4.4 Structure and Pharmacokinetics of 5-Fluorouracil 13.2.4.5 Structure and Pharmacokinetics of Trifluridine and Tipiracil (Lonsurf) 13.2.4.6 Adverse Effects 13.2.5 Commercialization of the Seaweed-Derived Drug for Colon Cancer and Brand 13.3 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Recent Update on Nanomedicine-Based Drug Targeting on Colon Cancer 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Conventional Therapy for Colon Cancer 14.3 Limitation for Colon Drug Delivery 14.3.1 Anatomical Factors 14.3.2 Intestinal Transit Time 14.3.3 Colonic Fluid Volume and Viscosity 14.3.4 Colonic pH 14.3.5 Colonic Enzymes and Metabolism 14.3.6 Multidrug Resistance as Barriers 14.4 Targets for CRC Treatment 14.4.1 Receptors and Transporters 14.4.2 Colon Cancer Stem cells (CCSCs) Target 14.4.3 Colorectal Cancer Microenvironment 14.4.4 Targeting Colorectal Cancer and Metastatic Liver Cancer 14.4.5 Nanoparticle-Mediated Gene Therapy 14.5 Colon-Targeted Novel Drug Delivery 14.5.1 Polymer-Based Nanoparticles 14.5.2 Lipid-Based Formulations 14.5.3 Ligand-/Receptor-Mediated Drug Delivery System 14.5.4 Magnetic Microcarrier for Drug Delivery 14.5.5 Micelles 14.5.6 Liposomes 14.5.7 Dendrimers 14.5.8 Cyclodextrins 14.5.9 Microemulsions 14.5.10 Nanoparticles 14.6 Summary and Future Directions References Chapter 15: Therapeutic Targeting of Glutamine Metabolism in Colorectal Cancer 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Metabolism of Cancer and Normal Cells 15.2.1 Glutamine Metabolism 15.2.2 Glutamine Transporters and Cancer 15.2.3 Different Enzymes Associated with Glutamine Metabolism in CRC 15.3 Targeting Glutamine Metabolism in CRC 15.4 Future Prospective References Chapter 16: Preventive Effect of Indian Food on Colorectal Cancer 16.1 Introduction 16.1.1 Epidemiology and Etiology of Colorectal Cancer 16.1.2 Global Incidence 16.1.3 Incidence Rate in India 16.1.4 Mortality and Survival 16.2 Indian Approach Toward Cancer Prevention 16.3 Role of Indian Diet in Colon Cancer Prevention 16.3.1 Role of Spices in Colon Cancer Prevention 16.3.1.1 Turmeric 16.3.1.2 Black Cumin 16.3.1.3 Ginger 16.3.1.4 Garlic 16.3.1.5 Onion and Scallion 16.3.1.6 Saffron 16.3.1.7 Black Pepper 16.3.1.8 Red Chili Pepper and Capsaicin 16.3.1.9 Rosemary 16.3.1.10 Clove 16.3.1.11 Galangal 16.3.1.12 Coriander 16.3.1.13 Cinnamon 16.3.1.14 Oregano 16.3.1.15 Cardamom 16.3.2 Role of Condiments in Colon Cancer Prevention 16.3.2.1 Honey 16.3.2.2 Nuts and Seeds 16.3.2.3 Tea and Coffee 16.3.2.4 Salads 16.4 Role of Other Commonly Used Indian Foods in Colon Cancer Prevention 16.4.1 Tamarind 16.4.2 Pomegranate 16.4.3 Amla 16.4.4 Sugar Beet 16.4.5 Bitter Gourd 16.4.6 Moringa 16.5 Dietary Phytochemicals in Colorectal Cancer Prevention 16.6 Conclusion References Chapter 17: Extracellular Vesicles in Colorectal Cancer Progression, Metastasis, Diagnosis, and Therapy 17.1 Extracellular Vesicles 17.1.1 Exosomes 17.1.2 Microvesicles (MVs) or Ectosomes 17.1.3 Large Oncosomes (LOs) 17.1.4 Apoptotic Bodies (ABs) 17.2 Isolation, Detection, and Analysis of Exosome 17.3 Role of EVs in Cancer 17.4 Colorectal Cancer (CRC) 17.5 Role of EVs in CRC 17.5.1 EVs in Tumor Progression 17.5.2 Instigation of Metastasis 17.5.3 Role in Drug Resistance 17.5.4 Tumor Diagnostic and Prognostic Biomarker 17.5.5 EVs in the Regulation of Immune Response to Cancer 17.5.6 EVs in Cancer Therapeutics 17.6 Conclusion References Chapter 18: Probiotics in Colon Cancer: A Therapeutic Approach 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Recent Findings in Newer Probiotic Strains 18.2.1 In Vitro Studies 18.2.2 Studies in Animal Models 18.3 Probiotics and Colon Cancer Treatment 18.3.1 Alteration in the Enzymatic Activity 18.3.2 Immunomodulation by Probiotics 18.3.3 Inducing Apoptosis and Anti-proliferative Mechanism 18.3.4 Carcinogenic Agents in the Colon and Role of Probiotic Against It 18.4 Establishment of In Vitro Model Systems to Evaluate Efficacy of Probiotic Strains 18.5 Probiotics as Adjuvants 18.6 Conclusion References Index