Ecology : concepts & applications

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Cover Ecology: Concepts & Applications About the Authors Dedication Brief Contents Contents Preface Chapter 1: Introduction to Ecology: Historical Foundations and Developing Frontiers Concepts 1.1: Overview of Ecology Concept 1.1 Review 1.2: Sampling Ecological Research Climatic and Ecological Change: Past and Future Concept 1.2 Review Applications: Ecology Can Inform Environmental Law and Policy Section I: Natural History and Evolution Chapter 2: Life on Land Concepts Terrestrial Biomes and the Importance of Plants 2.1: Large-Scale Patterns of Climatic Variation Temperature, Atmospheric Circulation, and Precipitation Climate Diagrams Concept 2.1 Review 2.2: Other Factors That Shape Terrestrial Biomes Concept 2.2 Review 2.3: Natural History and Geography of Biomes Tropical Rain Forest Tropical Dry Forest Tropical Savanna Desert Woodland and Shrubland Temperate Grassland Temperate Forest Boreal Forest Tundra Mountains: A Diversity of Biomes Concept 2.3 Review Applications: Finer Scale Climatic Variation over Time and Space Chapter 3: Life in Water Concepts Aquatic Biomes and How They Differ 3.1: Water Cycling The Hydrologic Cycle The Effects of Wind and Temperature Concept 3.1 Review 3.2: The Natural History of Aquatic Environments The Oceans Life in Shallow Marine Waters: Kelp Forests and Coral Gardens Marine Shores: Life Between High and Low Tides Transitional Environments: Estuaries, Salt Marshes, Mangrove Forests, and Freshwater Wetlands Rivers and Streams: Life Blood and Pulse of the Land Lakes: Small Seas Concept 3.2 Review Applications: Biological IntegrityÑAssessing the Health of Aquatic Systems Number of Species and Species Composition Trophic Composition Fish Abundance and Condition A Test Chapter 4: Population Genetics and Natural Selection Concepts 4.1: Variation Within Populations Variation in a Widely Distributed Plant Variation in Alpine Fish Populations Concept 4.1 Review 4.2: Hardy-Weinberg Principle Calculating Gene Frequencies Concept 4.2 Review 4.3: The Process of Natural Selection Stabilizing Selection Directional Selection Disruptive Selection Concept 4.3 Review 4.4: Evolution by Natural Selection Heritability: Essential for Evolution Directional Selection: Adaptation by Soapberry Bugs to New Host Plants Concept 4.4 Review 4.5: Change due to Chance Evidence of Genetic Drift in Island Crickets Genetic Diversity and Butterfly Extinctions Concept 4.5 Review Applications: Evolution and Agriculture Evolution of Herbicide Resistance in Weeds Section II: Adaptations to the Environment Chapter 5: Temperature Relations Concepts 5.1: Microclimates Altitude Aspect Vegetation Color of the Ground Presence of Boulders and Burrows Aquatic Temperatures Concept 5.1 Review 5.2: Evolutionary Trade-Offs The Principle of Allocation Concept 5.2 Review 5.3: Temperature and Performance of Organisms Extreme Temperatures and Photosynthesis Temperature and Microbial Activity Concept 5.3 Review 5.4: Regulating Body Temperature Balancing Heat Gain Against Heat Loss Temperature Regulation by Plants Temperature Regulation by Ectothermic Animals Temperature Regulation by Endothermic Animals Temperature Regulation by Thermogenic Plants Concept 5.4 Review 5.5: Surviving Extreme Temperatures Inactivity Reducing Metabolic Rate Hibernation by a Tropical Species Concept 5.5 Review Applications: Local Extinction of a Land Snail in an Urban Heat Island Chapter 6: Water Relations Concepts 6.1: Water Availability Water Content of Air Water Movement in Aquatic Environments Water Movement Between Soils and Plants Concept 6.1 Review 6.2: Water Regulation on Land Water Acquisition by Animals Water Acquisition by Plants Water Conservation by Plants and Animals Dissimilar Organisms with Similar Approaches to Desert Life Two Arthropods with Opposite Approaches to Desert Life Concept 6.2 Review 6.3: Water and Salt Balance in Aquatic Environments Marine Fish and Invertebrates Freshwater Fish and Invertebrates Concept 6.3 Review Applications: Using Stable Isotopes to Study Water Uptake by Plants Stable Isotope Analysis Using Stable Isotopes to Identify Plant Water Sources Chapter 7: Energy and Nutrient Relations Concepts 7.1: Photosynthetic Autotrophs The Solar-Powered Biosphere Concept 7.1 Review 7.2: Chemosynthetic Autotrophs Concept 7.2 Review 7.3: Heterotrophs Chemical Composition and Nutrient Requirements Concept 7.3 Review 7.4: Energy Limitation Photon Flux and Photosynthetic Response Curves Food Density and Animal Functional Response Concept 7.4 Review 7.5: Optimal Foraging Theory Testing Optimal Foraging Theory Optimal Foraging by Plants Concept 7.5 Review Applications: BioremediationÑUsing the Trophic Diversity of Bacteria to Solve Environmental Problems Leaking Underground Storage Tanks Cyanide and Nitrates in Mine Spoils Chapter 8: Social Relations Concepts 8.1: Mate Choice versus Predation Mate Choice and Sexual Selection in Guppies Concept 8.1 Review 8.2: Mate Choice and Resource Provisioning Concept 8.2 Review 8.3: Nonrandom Mating in a Plant Population Concept 8.3 Review 8.4: Sociality Cooperative Breeders Concept 8.4 Review 8.5: Eusociality Eusocial Species Evolution of Eusociality Concept 8.5 Review Applications: Behavioral Ecology and Conservation TinbergenÕs Framework Environmental Enrichment and Development of Behavior Section III: Population Ecology Chapter 9 Population Distribution and Abundance Concepts 9.1: Distribution Limits Kangaroo Distributions and Climate Distributions of Plants Along a Moisture-Temperature Gradient Distributions of Barnacles Along an Intertidal Exposure Gradient Concept 9.1 Review 9.2: Patterns on Small Scales Scale, Distributions, and Mechanisms Distributions of Tropical Bee Colonies Distributions of Desert Shrubs Concept 9.2 Review 9.3: Patterns on Large Scales Bird Populations Across North America Plant Distributions Along Moisture Gradients Concept 9.3 Review 9.4: Organism Size and Population Density Animal Size and Population Density Plant Size and Population Density Concept 9.4 Review Applications: Rarity and Vulnerability to Extinction Seven Forms of Rarity and One of Abundance Chapter 10: Population Dynamics Concepts 10.1: Dispersal Dispersal of Expanding Populations Range Changes in Response to Climate Change Dispersal in Response to Changing Food Supply Dispersal in Rivers and Streams Concept 10.1 Review 10.2: Metapopulations A Metapopulation of an Alpine Butterfly Dispersal Within a Metapopulation of Lesser Kestrels Concept 10.2 Review 10.3: Patterns of Survival Estimating Patterns of Survival High Survival Among the Young Constant Rates of Survival High Mortality Among the Young Three Types of Survivorship Curves Concept 10.3 Review 10.4: Age Distribution Contrasting Tree Populations A Dynamic Population in a Variable Climate Concept 10.4 Review 10.5: Rates of Population Change Estimating Rates for an Annual Plant Estimating Rates When Generations Overlap Concept 10.5 Review Applications: Changes in Species Distributions in Response to Climate Warming Chapter 11: Population Growth Concepts 11.1: Geometric and Exponential Population Growth Geometric Growth Exponential Growth Exponential Growth in Nature Concept 11.1 Review 11.2: Logistic Population Growth Concept 11.2 Review 11.3: Limits to Population Growth Environment and Birth and Death Among DarwinÕs Finches Concept 11.3 Review Applications: The Human Population Distribution and Abundance Population Dynamics Population Growth Chapter 12: Life Histories Concepts 12.1: Offspring Number versus Size Egg Size and Number in Fish Seed Size and Number in Plants Seed Size and Seedling Performance Concept 12.1 Review 12.2: Adult Survival and Reproductive Allocation Life History Variation Among Species Life History Variation within Species Concept 12.2 Review 12.3: Life History Classification r and K Selection Plant Life Histories Opportunistic, Equilibrium, and Periodic Life Histories Lifetime Reproductive Effort and Relative Offspring Size: Two Central Variables? Concept 12.3 Review Applications: Climate Change and Timing of Reproduction and Migration Altered Plant Phenology Animal Phenology Section IV: Interactions Chapter 13: Species Interactions and Competition Concepts Competitive Interactions Are Diverse 13.1: Intraspecific Competition Intraspecific Competition Among Plants Intraspecific Competition Among Planthoppers Interference Competition Among Terrestrial Isopods Concept 13.1 Review 13.2: Competitive Exclusion and Niches The Feeding Niches of DarwinÕs Finches Competition for Caterpillars Concept 13.2 Review 13.3: Mathematical and Laboratory Models Modeling Interspecific Competition Laboratory Models of Competition Concept 13.3 Review 13.4: Competition and Niches Niches and Competition Among Plants Niche Overlap and Competition Between Barnacles Competition and the Niches of Small Rodents Character Displacement Evidence for Competition in Nature Concept 13.4 Review Applications: Competition Between Native and Invasive Species Chapter 14: Exploitative Interactions: Predation, Herbivory, Parasitism, and Disease Concepts 14.1: Exploitation and Abundance A Herbivorous Stream Insect and Its Algal Food Bats, Birds, and Herbivory in a Tropical Forest A Pathogenic Parasite, a Predator, and Its Prey Concept 14.1 Review 14.2: Dynamics Cycles of Abundance in Snowshoe Hares and Their Predators Experimental Test of Food and Predation Impacts Population Cycles in Mathematical and Laboratory Models Concept 14.2 Review 14.3: Refuges Refuges and Host Persistence in Laboratory and Mathematical Models Exploited Organisms and Their Wide Variety of ÒRefugesÓ Concept 14.3 Review 14.4: Ratio-Dependent Models of Functional Response Alternative Model for Trophic Ecology Evidence for Ratio-Dependent Predation Concept 14.4 Review 14.5: Complex Interactions Parasites and Pathogens That Manipulate Host Behavior The Entangling of Exploitation with Competition Concept 14.5 Review Applications: The Value of Pest Control by Bats: A Case Study Chapter 15: Mutualism Concepts 15.1: Plant Mutualisms Plant Performance and Mycorrhizal Fungi Ants and Swollen Thorn Acacias A Temperate Plant Protection Mutualism Concept 15.1 Review 15.2: Coral Mutualisms Zooxanthellae and Corals A Coral Protection Mutualism Concept 15.2 Review 15.3: Evolution of Mutualism Facultative Ant-Plant Protection Mutualisms Concept 15.3 Review Applications: Mutualism and Humans Guiding Behavior Section V: Communities and Ecosystems Chapter 16: Species Abundance and Diversity Concepts 16.1: Species Abundance The Lognormal Distribution Concept 16.1 Review 16.2: Species Diversity A Quantitative Index of Species Diversity Rank-Abundance Curves Concept 16.2 Review 16.3: Environmental Complexity Forest Complexity and Bird Species Diversity Niches, Heterogeneity, and the Diversity of Algae and Plants The Niches of Algae and Terrestrial Plants Complexity in Plant Environments Soil and Topographic Heterogeneity Nutrient Enrichment Can Reduce Environmental Complexity Nitrogen Enrichment and Ectomycorrhizal Fungus Diversity Concept 16.3 Review 16.4: Disturbance and Diversity The Nature and Sources of Disturbance The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis Disturbance and Diversity in the Intertidal Zone Disturbance and Diversity in Temperate Grasslands Concept 16.4 Review Applications: Disturbance by Humans Urban Diversity Chapter 17: Species Interactions and Community Structure Concepts Strong Interactions and Food Web Structure Concept 17.1 Review 17.2: Indirect Interactions Indirect Commensalism Apparent Competition Concept 17.2 Review 17.3: Keystone Species Food Web Structure and Species Diversity Experimental Removal of Sea Stars Snail Effects on Algal Diversity Fish as Keystone Species in River Food Webs Concept 17.3 Review 17.4: Mutualistic Keystones A Cleaner Fish as a Keystone Species Seed Dispersal Mutualists as Keystone Species Concept 17.4 Review Applications: Human Modification of Food Webs Parasitoid Wasps: Apparent Competition and Biological Control Chapter 18: Primary and Secondary Production Concepts 18.1: Patterns of Terrestrial Primary Production Actual Evapotranspiration and Terrestrial Primary Production Soil Fertility and Terrestrial Primary Production Concept 18.1 Review 18.2: Patterns of Aquatic Primary Production Patterns and Models Whole-Lake Experiments on Primary Production Global Patterns of Marine Primary Production Concept 18.2 Review 18.3: Primary Producer Diversity Terrestrial Plant Diversity and Primary Production Algal Diversity and Aquatic Primary Production Concept 18.3 Review 18.4: Consumer Influences Piscivores, Planktivores, and Lake Primary Production Grazing by Large Mammals and Primary Production on the Serengeti Concept 18.4 Review 18.5: Secondary Production A Trophic Dynamic View of Ecosystems Top-down Versus Bottom-up Controls on Secondary Production Linking Primary Production and Secondary Production Concept 18.5 Review Applications: Using Stable Isotope Analysis to Study Feeding Habits Using Stable Isotopes to Identify Sources of Energy in a Salt Marsh Chapter 19: Nutrient Cycling and Retention Concepts 19.1: Nutrient Cycles The Phosphorus Cycle The Nitrogen Cycle The Carbon Cycle Concept 19.1 Review 19.2: Rates of Decomposition Decomposition in Two Mediterranean Woodland Ecosystems Decomposition in Two Temperate Forest Ecosystems Decomposition in Aquatic Ecosystems Concept 19.2 Review 19.3: Organisms and Nutrients Nutrient Cycling in Streams and Lakes Animals and Nutrient Cycling in Terrestrial Ecosystems Plants and the Nutrient Dynamics of Ecosystems Concept 19.3 Review 19.4: Disturbance and Nutrients Disturbance and Nutrient Loss from Forests Flooding and Nutrient Export by Streams Concept 19.4 Review Applications: Altering Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems Chapter 20: Succession and Stability Concepts 20.1: Community Changes During Succession Primary Succession at Glacier Bay Secondary Succession in Temperate Forests Succession in Rocky Intertidal Communities Succession in Stream Communities Concept 20.1 Review 20.2: Ecosystem Changes During Succession Four Million Years of Ecosystem Change Succession and Stream Ecosystem Properties Concept 20.2 Review 20.3: Mechanisms of Succession Facilitation Tolerance Inhibition Successional Mechanisms in the Rocky Intertidal Zone Mechanisms in Old Field Succession Concept 20.3 Review 20.4: Community and Ecosystem Stability Lessons from the Park Grass Experiment Replicate Disturbances and Desert Stream Stability Concept 20.4 Review Applications: Ecological Succession Informing Ecological Restoration Applying Succession Concepts to Restoration Section VI: Large-Scale Ecology Chapter 21: Landscape Ecology Concepts 21.1: Landscape Structure The Structure of Six Landscapes in Ohio The Fractal Geometry of Landscapes Concept 21.1 Review 21.2: Landscape Processes Landscape Structure and the Dispersal of Mammals Habitat Patch Size and Isolation and the Density of Butterfly Populations Habitat Corridors and Movement of Organisms Landscape Position and Lake Chemistry Concept 21.2 Review 21.3: Origins of Landscape Structure and Change Geological Processes, Climate, and Landscape Structure Organisms and Landscape Structure Fire and the Structure of a Mediterranean Landscape Concept 21.3 Review Applications: Landscape Approaches to Mitigating Urban Heat Islands Chapter 22: Geographic Ecology Concepts 22.1: Area, Isolation, and Species Richness Island Area and Species Richness Island Isolation and Species Richness Concept 22.1 Review 22.2: The Equilibrium Model of Island Biogeography Species Turnover on Islands Experimental Island Biogeography Colonization of New Islands by Plants Manipulating Island Area Island Biogeography Update Concept 22.2 Review 22.3: Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness Latitudinal Gradient Hypotheses Area and Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness Continental Area and Species Richness Concept 22.3 Review 22.4: Historical and Regional Influences Exceptional Patterns of Diversity Historical and Regional Explanations Concept 22.4 Review Applications: Global Positioning Systems, Remote Sensing, and Geographic Information Systems Global Positioning Systems Remote Sensing Geographic Information Systems Chapter 23: Global Ecology Concepts The Atmospheric Envelope and the Greenhouse Earth 23.1: A Global System The Historical Thread El Ni–o and La Ni–a El Ni–o Southern Oscillation and Marine Populations El Ni–o and the Great Salt Lake El Ni–o and Terrestrial Populations in Australia Concept 23.1 Review 23.2: Human Activity and the Global Nitrogen Cycle Concept 23.2 Review 23.3: Changes in Land Cover Deforestation Concept 23.3 Review 23.4: Human Influence on Atmospheric Composition Depletion and Recovery of the Ozone Layer Concept 23.4 Review Applications: Impacts of Global Climate Change Shifts in Biodiversity and Widespread Extinction of Species Human Impacts of Climate Change Appendix A: Investigating the Evidence 1: The Scientific MethodÑQuestions and Hypotheses 2: Determining the Sample Mean 3: Determining the Sample Median 4: Variation in Data 5: Laboratory Experiments 6: Sample Size 7: Scatter Plots and the Relationship Between Variables 8: Estimating Heritability Using Regression Analysis 9: Clumped, Random, and Regular Distributions 10: Hypotheses and Statistical Significance 11: Frequency of Alternative Phenotypes in a Population 12: A Statistical Test for Distribution Pattern 13: Field Experiments 14: Standard Error of the Mean 15: Confidence Intervals 16: Estimating the Number of Species in Communities 17: Using Confidence Intervals to Compare Populations 18: Comparing Two Populations with the t-Test 19: Assumptions for Statistical Tests 20: Variation Around the Median 21: Comparison of Two Samples Using a Rank Sum Test 22: Sample Size Revisited 23: Discovering WhatÕs Been Discovered Appendix B: Statistical Tables Appendix C: Abbreviations Used in This Text Appendix D: Global Biomes Glossary References Index