The Concept of Matter: A Journey from Antiquity to Quantum Physics

Description

Our current concept of matter, one of scientific research’s greatest successes, represents a long journey, from questions posed during the birth of philosophy in Ancient Greece to recent advances in physics and chemistry, including Quantum Physics. This book outlines that journey. The book has three parts, each detailing a phase of the journey. The first saw the development of a conception based on "classical" physics; the second saw the construction of the "old" quantum theory attempting to explain the mysterious properties of matter, resulting in formulation of the "new" quantum theory; the third saw the formation of the modern conception of matter, based on quantum mechanics. Along the way, various topics are discussed, including: rediscovery and appropriation of antiquity by Western culture in the modern era; the subsequent revision process in the 16th and 17th centuries and the new experiments and theories of the 18th; attempts to understand the mysterious properties of matter that could not be explained by classical physics; the first quantization hypotheses; discovery of new purely "quantum-mechanical" properties of matter; and the ultimate clarification of atomic structure. This book is aimed at anyone who wants a clear picture of how we arrived at the modern conception of matter.  Acknowledgements Contents 1 Introduction Part I Matter and Classical Science 2 The Legacy of Antiquity 2.1 Knowledge from Crafts and Techniques 2.2 Matter in Ancient Philosophy 2.2.1 The Pre-socratics’ Concept of Matter 2.2.2 Atomism 2.2.3 Nature in the Aristotelian System 2.3 Alchemy References 3 Matter at the Beginning of the Scientific Revolution 3.1 Empirical Knowledge of Matter 3.2 Matter and Substances in Arab, Medieval and Renaissance Alchemy 3.3 Matter and Substances in the Philosophical and Scholarly Tradition References 4 Matter in the Seventeenth Century 4.1 Alchemical and Chemical Quests in the First Half of Century 4.2 Matter and Physical Properties: Air and Vacuum 4.2.1 Experiments with Vacuum 4.2.2 Combustion, Respiration and Calcination. The Complex Nature of Air 4.3 Mechanical Philosophy and Atomism in the Seventeenth Century 4.3.1 Atomism of Gassendi, Boyle and Newton 4.4 Boyle’s Criticism of Aristotelian and Alchemical Concepts References 5 Matter in the Eighteenth Century 5.1 Phlogiston Theory 5.2 Matter in the Gaseous State 5.2.1 Black and Fixed Air (Carbon Dioxide) 5.2.2 Cavendish and Inflammable Air (Hydrogen) 5.2.3 Oxygen, Nitrogen and Air 5.3 Combustion and Calcination 5.4 Composition of Water and Confutation of the Phlogiston Theory 5.5 Chemistry and Matter at the End of Eighteenth Century 5.5.1 Conservation of Matter and Chemical Elements 5.5.2 Compounds and Affinity 5.5.3 Combination and Equivalents References 6 Matter and Electricity 6.1 The Voltaic Pile 6.2 Electrolysis References 7 Chemistry and Matter in the Nineteenth Century 7.1 Revival of Atomism 7.1.1 Avogadro’s Law 7.1.2 The Dualistic Theory of Affinity 7.1.3 Faraday and the Electrolysis 7.2 Chemical Bonds and Valency 7.3 Elements and Periodic Law References 8 Physics and Matter in the Nineteenth Century 8.1 Kinetic Theory of Gases 8.1.1 Nature of Heat 8.1.2 Specific Heats 8.1.3 Loschmidt’s Experiment 8.2 Nature of Electric Charges 8.2.1 Cathode Rays and the Discovery of Electrons 8.2.2 Canal Rays References Part II Matter and Old Quantum Theory 9 The Appearance of Quanta 9.1 Black Body Radiation 9.2 Photoelectric Effect 9.3 Quantum Specific Heat References 10 Bohr’s Atom 10.1 Early Atomic Models 10.2 Light and Atoms: Spectroscopy 10.3 Bohr’s Theory 10.4 Moseley’s Experiments 10.5 Experiment of Franck and Hertz 10.6 Elliptical Orbits and Space Quantization References 11 Electrons and Atoms 11.1 Electronic Structure and Periodicity of the Elements 11.1.1 Bohr’s Aufbauprinzip 11.2 Fine Structure and Magnetic Field Effects 11.3 Sommerfeld’s Relativistic Corrections 11.4 A New Quantum Number: Electron Spin 11.5 Wavelike Nature of Matter References Part III Quantum Mechanical Representation of Matter 12 Quantum Atoms and Molecules 12.1 Quantum Mechanics 12.2 Hydrogen 12.3 Helium and Quantum Properties of Multielectron Atoms 12.4 Molecules: Covalent Bond References 13 Solid Matter 13.1 Atomic Ordering 13.2 Electrons in Solid Matter 13.2.1 The Free Electron Gas 13.2.2 Bloch Waves and Band Theory 13.2.3 Metals and Insulators References 14 Semiconductors 14.1 Silicon 14.2 Doping and Microelectronic Devices References Appendix A On Gases and Water Lavoisier’s Experiments Composition of Water Appendix B On Nineteenth Century Physics Krönig-Clausius Equation Kinetic Energy and Temperature Harmonic Oscillator Measurement of e/m (Charge/Mass) Appendix C On Old Quantum Theory More on Photoelectric Effect More on Bohr’s Theory X-rays and Mosely’s Experiments Optical Spectra of Alkali Metals Appendix D On Matter and Quantum Mechanics Indistinguishability and Exchange Interaction Ionized Hydrogen Molecule Classical Free Electrons Gas Sommerfeld’s Free Electrons Gas Bloch’s Electrons Index