Investigation of Land Subsidence due to Fluid Withdrawal

Description

Prepared by the Land Subsidence Task Committee of the Managed Aquifer Recharge Standards Committee of the Environmental and Water Resources Institute of ASCE Investigation of Land Subsidence due to Fluid Withdrawal provides an overview of the occurrence, mechanics, measurement, analysis and simulation, and control of land subsidence due to fluid withdrawal with emphasis on groundwater withdrawal. Caused by fluid withdrawal, land subsidence has been well recognized as one of the major geological hazards by hydrogeologists and engineers. Land subsidence can occur on local and regional scales worldwide and is often discovered only after damage to buildings and important infrastructure occurs. This book covers • Land subsidence processes; • Rudimentary mechanics of subsidence attributed to the withdrawal of subsurface fluids; • Traditional techniques identifying, measuring, mapping, and monitoring aquifer system compaction and land subsidence; • Empirical and theoretical approaches to analyzing and simulating aquifer system compaction and subsidence; and • Methods and measures used to mitigate subsidence hazards associated with groundwater withdrawal. This book will be a valuable resource to water resources project planners and design professionals, hydrogeologists, and engineers, especially in areas where aquifers are susceptible to land subsidence. Book_5078_C000 Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Contents Preface Acknowledgments Book_5078_C001 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Purpose and Scope 1.2 Background 1.3 Occurrence and History of Subsidence 1.4 Problems Resulting from Subsidence References Book_5078_C002 CHAPTER 2: Subsidence Processes 2.1 Compaction Caused by Fluid Extraction 2.1.1 Extraction of Pore Fluids 2.1.2 Groundwater 2.1.3 Hydrocarbons 2.1.4 Geothermal Fluids 2.2 Hydrocompaction References Book_5078_C003 Chapter 3: Aquifer Mechanics and Land Subsidence due to Groundwater 3.1 Theory of Aquifer-System Compaction 3.1.1 Principle of Effective Stress 3.1.2 Aquifer-System Compressibility and Storage Concepts 3.1.3 Theory of Hydrodynamic Consolidation 3.2 Stress Causing Aquifer-System Compaction 3.2.1 Static Stresses 3.2.2 Dynamic Stresses 3.3 Stress–Strain Relationship in Susceptible Aquifer Systems 3.3.1 Stress–Strain Analysis 3.3.2 Compressibilities of Clays and Sands from Tests in the Lab and Field References Book_5078_C004 CHAPTER 4: Identification, Measurement, Mapping, and Monitoring 4.1 Ground-Based Geodetic Surveys 4.1.1 Precise Differential Leveling 4.1.2 Global Positioning System 4.1.3 Other Techniques for Measuring Land-Surface Change 4.1.4 Extensometry 4.1.4.1 Single and Double Pipe Borehole Extensometers 4.1.4.2 Anchored-Cable and Free-Pipe Extensometers 4.1.4.3 Slip Joints 4.1.4.4 Telescopic Extensometer 4.1.4.5 Extensometer Records 4.1.5 Tripod-Mounted LiDAR 4.1.6 Other Techniques of Subsurface Measurement 4.1.6.1 General 4.1.6.2 Casing-Collar Logging 4.1.6.3 Radioactive-Marker Logging 4.1.6.4 Inclinometers 4.2 Airborne and Spaced-Based Geodetic Surveys 4.2.1 LiDAR 4.2.1.1 Data Density 4.2.1.2 Geodetic Control 4.2.1.3 Quality Assurance/Quality Control 4.2.2 Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry 4.3 Horizontal Displacement References Book_5078_C005 CHAPTER 5: Subsidence Analysis and Simulation 5.1 Empirical Methods 5.2 Quasi-Theoretical Approach 5.2.1 Wadachi’s (1940) Model 5.2.2 Subsidence as a Function of Liquid Extraction 5.2.3 Ratio of Subsidence to Head Decline 5.2.4 Clay Content–Subsidence Relation 5.2.5 Depth–Porosity Model 5.3 Theoretical Approach 5.3.1 Aquitard Drainage Model 5.3.1.1 Conventional Groundwater Flow Theory 5.3.1.2 Simulation of the Aquitard Drainage Model 5.3.2 Poroelasticity Model 5.3.2.1 Poroelasticity Theory 5.3.2.2 Simulation of the Poroelasticity Model 5.3.3 Other Constitutive Models 5.3.4 Other Types of Subsidence Models 5.3.4.1 Simple Subsidence Estimates 5.3.4.2 Influence of Material within the Unpumped Overburden References Book_5078_C006 CHAPTER 6: Methods to Mitigate Subsidence Caused by Groundwater Withdrawal 6.1 Reduction in Groundwater Withdrawal 6.2 Artificial Recharge of Aquifer Systems 6.3 Case Histories of the Methods Used 6.3.1 Shanghai, China 6.3.2 Venice, Italy 6.3.3 Japan 6.3.4 United States References Book_5078_A001 Appendix A Standards Used for Laboratory Tests and Field Sampling for Properties of Sediments in Subsiding Areas A.1 General Need of Tests A.2 Field Sampling A.3 Composite Logs of Core Holes A.4 Methods of Laboratory Analysis A.4.1 Particle-Size Distribution A.4.2 Hydraulic Conductivity A.4.3 Unit Weight A.4.4 Specific Gravity of Solids A.4.5 Porosity and Void Ratio A.4.6 Water (Moisture) Content A.4.7 Atterberg Limits A.4.7.1 Liquid Limit A.4.7.2 Plastic Limit A.4.8 Consolidation A.5 Results of Laboratory Analyses A.5.1 Particle-Size Distribution A.5.1.1 Sediment Classification Triangles A.5.1.2 Statistical Measures A.5.2 Hydraulic Conductivity A.5.3 Specific Gravity, Unit Weight, and Porosity A.5.4 Atterberg Limits and Indexes A.5.5 Consolidation A.5.5.1 Estimation of the Compression Index A.5.5.2 Correlation of Compression Indexes A.5.5.3 Estimation of the Coefficients of Consolidation A.5.5.4 Effect of Soil Classification A.5.5.5 Relationship between Consolidation Characteristics and LLs A.5.6 Relationships between Soil-Engineering and Hydrogeologic Terms and Concepts A.5.6.1 Pore Volume A.5.6.2 Moisture Content A.5.6.3 Compressibility References Book_5078_A002 Appendix B: Notations, Symbols, and Glossary B.1 Notations and Symbols B.2 Glossary References Book_5078_A003 Appendix C Conversion Table Book_5078_IDX