Gender and Sexuality Development: Contemporary Theory and Research

Description

This book showcases a wealth of knowledge and insight on gender and sexuality development. With contributions from leading researchers, it covers a comprehensive set of topics at the forefront of the field and strikes a balance between traditional and emerging areas of study. Given that gender and sexuality are shaped by myriad influences, this book is modelled on an interdisciplinary perspective and delves into biological, comparative, psychological, cognitive, social, cultural, and clinical approaches. In so doing, this collection conveys the rich tapestry of gender and sexuality science and will hold value for many. For those already in the field, this book provides an excellent resource for brushing up on the latest and for inspiring the next phases of scientific investigation. Those who are newer to the field, including undergraduate and graduate students, stand to gain tremendously from not only the thoughtful and informative content, but also from the interdisciplinary approach modelled throughout the book. Beyond academia, this book is a valuable resource for clinicians and policy makers who deal with child and adolescent issues. Preface Why Gender and Sexuality Development? Origin Story Aims Overview Terminology Acknowledgments Contents Contributors Chapter 1: Measuring Sex Differences and Similarities 1.1 Sex or Gender? 1.1.1 The Sex Binary 1.2 Quantification of Sex Differences/Similarities 1.2.1 Common Indices of Difference/Similarity 1.2.1.1 Univariate Standardized Difference (Cohen´s d) 1.2.1.2 Multivariate Standardized Difference (Mahalanobis´ D) 1.2.1.3 Indices of Overlap (OVL, OVL2) 1.2.1.4 Indices of Superiority (U3, CL) 1.2.1.5 Probability of Correct Classification (PCC) 1.2.1.6 Variance Explained (η2) 1.2.1.7 Variance Ratio (VR) 1.2.1.8 Tail Ratio (TR) 1.2.2 Other Methods 1.2.2.1 Relative Distribution Methods 1.2.2.2 Taxometric Methods 1.2.2.3 Internal Consistency Analysis 1.2.3 Visualization 1.3 Statistical and Methodological Issues 1.3.1 Assumption Violations 1.3.2 Biases in Effect Sizes 1.3.3 Measurement Error and Other Artifacts 1.3.4 Meta-Analysis 1.4 Conclusion References Chapter 2: Prenatal Steroid Hormones and Sex Differences in Juvenile Rhesus Macaque Behavior 2.1 Sexually Differentiated Behavior in Rhesus Monkeys 2.2 Social Influences on Behavioral Sex Differences 2.3 Neonatal Hormonal Secretions and Rhesus Monkey Behavioral Sex Differences 2.4 Sex Differences in Maternal Treatment of Infants 2.5 Prenatal Hormonal Influences on Behavioral Sex Differences 2.5.1 Sex Differences in Juvenile Social Behavior 2.5.1.1 Studies of Effects of Exogenous Prenatal Steroid Administration on Rough Play and Mounting in Genetic Females 2.5.1.2 Effects of Altering Endogenous or Exogenous Androgens on Rough Play and Mounting in Males and Females 2.5.1.3 Sex Differences in Juvenile Interest in Infants 2.5.1.4 Juvenile Sex Differences in Preferences for Human Toys 2.6 Conclusion Spotlight Feature: The Implications of Social Environment for Sex Differences in Brain and Behavior References Chapter 3: Biological Approaches to Studying Gender Development 3.1 Sex Differences in Human Behavior 3.2 Sex Determination and Differentiation of Primary Sex Characteristics 3.3 Hormone Influences in Sex Differences 3.3.1 Animal Studies of Biological Influences on Sex-Typed Behavior 3.3.2 Studies of Hormone Influences in Humans 3.3.2.1 Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) 3.3.2.2 Complete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (CAIS) 3.3.2.3 Hormones Measured in Normative Development 3.3.2.4 Markers of Hormone Exposure 3.4 Genetic Approaches to Studying Sex Differences 3.5 Conclusions Spotlight Feature: The Neurobiology of Gender Dysphoria Spotlight Feature: Hormonal Treatment Effects on Adolescent Brain Development References Chapter 4: Social Influences on Gender Development: Theory and Context 4.1 Theoretical Roots of Social Influence on Gender Development 4.1.1 Social Cognitive Theory 4.1.2 Developmental Persuasion Model 4.2 Social Contextual Factors Influencing Gender Development 4.2.1 Family 4.2.2 Peers 4.2.3 School 4.2.4 Toys and Media 4.3 Conclusions References Chapter 5: Contemporary Cognitive Approaches to Gender Development: New Schemas, New Directions, and New Conceptualizations of... 5.1 Themes of Cognitive Theories of Gender Development 5.2 Rethinking Gender as a Social Category and as a Motivator 5.2.1 Sex Does Not Equal Gender 5.2.2 Gender Is Not Unchanging 5.2.3 The Expanding Role of Gender Labels/Identity as Motivator of Behavior 5.2.4 Summary 5.3 Expanding and Rethinking the Multidimensionality of Gender Identity 5.3.1 Conceptualizations of Gender Identity 5.3.2 Gender Similarity as a Central Dimension of Identity 5.3.3 Felt Pressure to Conform 5.4 Expanding Concepts Related to Gender Groups 5.4.1 Rethinking Stereotypes 5.4.2 Rethinking Gendered Social Relationships 5.5 Rethinking and Expanding Processes of Gender Development 5.5.1 Dual Pathways 5.5.2 Tobin´s Intrapsychics of Gender 5.6 Future Directions in Theory and Research 5.6.1 Expanding the Range of Gender Identity and Social Comparisons 5.6.2 Broadening Understanding of Gender-Diverse Children 5.6.3 Integration as a Theme in Future Theory Development 5.7 Conclusion Spotlight Feature: The Malleability of Gender: Conceptualizing Gender as a Contextual Variable References Chapter 6: Origins and Consequences of Childhood Gender Segregation: Toward an Integrative Developmental Systems Model 6.1 Gender-Segregated Peer Affiliations from Childhood into Adulthood 6.1.1 Early to Middle Childhood 6.1.2 Adolescence 6.1.3 Adulthood 6.2 Possible Explanations for the Emergence of Gender Segregation in Early Childhood 6.2.1 Families and Schools 6.2.2 Popular Media 6.2.3 Behavioral Compatibility 6.2.3.1 Evidence for Early Average Gender Differences in Behavior 6.2.3.2 Evidence Regarding the Behavioral Compatibility Hypothesis 6.2.4 Gender-Related Cognitions 6.2.4.1 Early Gender-Related Cognitions 6.2.4.2 Evidence Regarding the Cognitive Consonance Hypothesis 6.2.5 Need for Multidimensional and Multi-Domain Approach 6.2.5.1 Multi-Domain Approach to Behavioral Compatibility 6.2.5.2 Multidimensional and Multi-Domain Approach to Gender Identity and Schemas 6.3 Maintenance and Consequences of Gender Segregation in Childhood and Beyond 6.3.1 Peer Groups in Childhood and Adolescence 6.3.1.1 Ingroup Bias 6.3.1.2 Ingroup Assimilation 6.3.1.3 Outgroup Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Hostility 6.3.2 Institutionalized Gender Segregation in School and Work Settings 6.3.2.1 Single-Gender Schooling 6.3.2.2 Fraternities and Sororities 6.3.2.3 Athletic and Academic Programs 6.3.2.4 Occupations 6.4 Toward an Integrative Developmental Systems Model of Gender Segregation 6.4.1 Between-Group Overlap and Within-Gender Variability 6.4.2 Emulating Culturally Meaningful Role Models 6.4.3 Gender-Nonconforming Children 6.4.4 Summary and Conclusion 6.5 Looking Ahead: Building an Integrative Dynamic Systems Model Spotlight Feature: Education Beyond Academics: Gender-Segregated Schooling and Students´ Interpersonal Development References Chapter 7: Gender, Toys, and Play: How Gendered Early Experiences Shape Later Development 7.1 A Model of Gender Differentiation via Children´s Gender-Typed Toys and Play 7.1.1 Gender-Typed Toy Interests 7.1.2 Gender Differences in Play Style Preferences 7.1.3 Gender Segregation of Children During Play 7.1.4 Conclusion 7.2 Factors Shaping Children´s Gender-Typed Play Behaviors 7.2.1 Biological Factors 7.2.2 Social Factors 7.2.3 Cognitive Factors 7.2.4 Conclusion 7.3 The Impact of Gender-Typed Play Behaviors 7.3.1 Impact on Physical Development 7.3.2 Impact on Social Development 7.3.3 Impact on Cognitive Development 7.3.4 Conclusion 7.4 General Conclusions References Chapter 8: Family Gender Socialization in Childhood and Adolescence 8.1 Parenting and Gender Development 8.1.1 The Role of Genetics in Parents´ Gender Socialization 8.1.2 Parents´ Differential Treatment of Girls and Boys 8.1.3 Parents´ Role as Instructors 8.2 Interparental Relationships and Youth Gender Development 8.3 Siblings and Gender Development 8.4 Conclusion References Chapter 9: Gender Stereotypes and Education 9.1 Gender Stereotypes About Intellectual Abilities 9.2 Stereotypes About the Culture of a Field 9.3 Links Between the Ability Stereotypes and Women´s Representation 9.3.1 Motivation and Interests 9.3.2 Stereotype Threat 9.3.3 External Biases 9.4 Changing Stereotypes About Abilities 9.5 Changing Stereotypes About the Culture of a Field 9.6 Conclusion References Chapter 10: Gender-Based Discrimination in Childhood and Adolescence 10.1 Research on Gender Discrimination in Historical and Legal Context 10.2 Types of Gender-Based Discrimination Affecting Children and Adolescents 10.3 Gender-Based Discrimination Across Development and Contexts 10.3.1 Gender-Based Discrimination at Home 10.3.2 Gender-Based Discrimination at School 10.3.2.1 Teachers 10.3.2.2 Peers 10.3.3 Structural Discrimination 10.3.4 Cultural Discrimination 10.4 Conclusions Spotlight Feature: Children´s Appraisals of Peer Gender Nonconformity References Chapter 11: Gender and Sexuality in Disorders/Differences of Sex Development 11.1 Play Behaviour, Activities and Interests 11.2 Cognitive Functioning 11.3 Brain Development 11.4 Gender 11.4.1 Gender Identity and Expression 11.4.2 Gender Assignment 11.4.3 Gender Dysphoria and Change 11.5 Sexual Development in DSD 11.5.1 Sexual Orientation 11.5.2 Sexual Behaviour and Function 11.5.3 Psychosexual Well-being 11.6 Conclusion: Sex and Gender as Continuum Spotlight Feature: Testosterone, Science, and Sport References Chapter 12: Sexuality Development in Childhood 12.1 Theoretical Overview 12.2 Methodological Concerns 12.3 Child Sexuality 12.3.1 Solitary Sexual Behavior 12.3.2 Partnered Sexual Behavior 12.3.3 Sexual Desire 12.3.4 Sexual Orientation 12.4 Biosocial Influences on Sexuality Development 12.4.1 Adrenarche 12.4.2 Intimate Peer Relationships 12.4.3 Parental Influences 12.4.4 Media 12.5 Future Research 12.5.1 Sexual Arousability and Sexual Proceptivity 12.5.2 Sexual Agency and Sexual Scripts 12.5.3 Sexual Fluidity 12.5.4 Nonintrusive Measures 12.6 Conclusion Spotlight Feature: Doctor Games References Chapter 13: Sexual Pleasure in Adolescence: A Developmental Sexual Embodiment Perspective 13.1 Framing Sexual Pleasure in the Context of Adolescent Sexual Development 13.1.1 Elements of Adolescent Sexual Pleasure Development 13.1.2 Development of Sexual Pleasure Expectations in Adolescents 13.1.3 Neurocognitive Development of Sexual Pleasure in Adolescents 13.1.4 Sexual Socialization Influences on Sexual Pleasure in Adolescents 13.2 The Development of Sexual Embodiment During Adolescence 13.2.1 Sexual Pleasure Domains in Adolescents´ Sexual Experiences 13.2.1.1 Dance and Music 13.2.1.2 Kissing 13.2.1.3 Masturbation 13.2.1.4 Sexting 13.2.1.5 Partnered Genital Behaviors 13.3 Sexual Pleasure, Diverse Bodies, and Sexual Embodiment in Adolescents 13.3.1 Spina Bifida 13.3.2 Autism Spectrum 13.3.3 Gender Dysphoria 13.4 Summary and Conclusion 13.4.1 Pillar 1: The Experiences of Sexual Pleasure in Adolescence 13.4.2 Pillar 2: Sexual Pleasure and Diverse Sexual Bodies in Adolescence 13.4.3 Pillar 3: Pleasure as a Sexual Right During Adolescence Spotlight Feature: Sexuality Development Among Youth with Intellectual Disability-Societal Aspects in Theory and Practice A Normative and Protective World The Need for Relevant and Comprehensive Sex Education in a Multicultural Society Use of the Internet and Social Media Lack of Sexual Agency: Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights References Chapter 14: Pornography Use in Adolescence and Young Adulthood 14.1 Theoretical Approaches to Understanding Young People´s Pornography Use 14.2 The Prevalence of Pornography Use Among Adolescents and Emerging Adults 14.2.1 Pre-Internet Exposure/Use 14.2.2 Post-Internet (Online) Exposure/Use 14.2.3 Changes in Pornography Use across Adolescence 14.2.4 Exposure to and Use of Pornography: Correlates, Predictors, and Potential Confounds 14.3 Pornography Use and Sexual Risk Taking 14.4 Pornography and Sexual Aggression 14.5 Pornography Use and Young People´s Psychological Health and Sexual Well-Being 14.6 Emerging Insights on Pornography Literacy and the Role of Parents 14.7 Recommendations for Future Research 14.7.1 Using Data to Test Theories 14.7.2 Terminology and the Importance of Defining the Construct 14.7.3 Measurement Issues 14.7.4 Research Design 14.7.5 Analytical Robustness 14.7.6 Ideological Biases 14.7.7 Applied Research 14.8 Conclusions Spotlight Feature: Sexually Explicit Media Use Among Sexual and Gender Minority Adolescents References Chapter 15: A Review of Theoretical Models and Lifespan Approaches to the Study of Sexual Offending 15.1 Prevalence and Trends of Sexual Offending Perpetration and Victimization 15.2 Theoretical Models of Sexual Offending 15.2.1 Marshall and Barbaree´s Integrated Theory 15.2.1.1 Learning Experiences 15.2.1.2 Biological Factors 15.2.1.3 Situational Factors 15.2.2 Ward and Beech´s Integrated Theory 15.2.3 Seto´s Motivation Facilitation Model 15.3 Developmental Precursors of Sexual Offending 15.3.1 Developmental and Life-Course Criminology 15.3.2 DLC and Adolescents Who Sexually Offend 15.3.3 Trajectories of Child Sexual Behavior Problems 15.4 Future Research Directions 15.4.1 Testing of Theoretical Models 15.4.2 Early Intervention and Prevention 15.5 Conclusion References Chapter 16: Learned but Not Chosen: A Reward Competition Feedback Model for the Origins of Sexual Preferences and Orientations 16.1 Sexual Motivation: Nature and Nurture 16.2 Sexual Preferences and Orientations 16.2.1 Gender Differences in Erotic Plasticity 16.2.2 Sexual Fluidity: The Dynamic Systems Perspective 16.2.3 Sexual Arousal, Preferences, and Orientations 16.2.4 On the Significance of Nonspecific Arousal Patterns in Women and Men 16.3 The Development of Sexual Preferences and Orientations through Reward, Competition, and Feedback 16.3.1 Physiological Arousal, Learning, and the Development of Sexual Orientations: The Reward Competition Feedback (RCF) Model 16.3.2 Sex Differences in Arousal and Dynamics of Reward Competition Feedback 16.3.3 Additional Factors Influencing RCF Dynamics 16.3.4 Multi-level Evolution and the Development of Adaptive Reproductive Behavior 16.4 Additional Theories of Sexual Learning 16.4.1 Exotic Becomes Erotic; Familiar Becomes Boring 16.4.2 The Emergence of Heterosexual Reproductive Behavior Via Partial Instincts and Cultural Evolution 16.4.3 Olfaction, Innate Orientations, and Sexual Learning 16.4.4 Reward Learning and Flexible Critical (or Sensitive) Periods 16.5 Conclusion Spotlight Feature: Bisexuality Across Cultures References Chapter 17: Carving the Biodevelopment of Same-Sex Sexual Orientation at Its Joints 17.1 Why is it Important to Study Sexual Orientation Development? 17.2 The ``Scattered Particulars´´ of Sexual Orientation 17.2.1 Conceptualization and Measurement 17.2.2 Study Populations 17.2.3 Considerations Regarding Terminology 17.2.4 Summary of the ``Scattered Particulars´´ 17.3 Mechanisms of Sexual Orientation Biodevelopment 17.3.1 Genetic Influences 17.3.2 Hormonal Influences 17.3.3 Immunological Influences 17.3.4 Brain Differences 17.3.5 Cross-cultural Research 17.3.6 Summary Regarding Biodevelopmental Mechanisms 17.4 One Biodevelopmental Pathway or Many? 17.4.1 Evidence of Biodevelopmental Subgroups 17.4.2 Does Gender Expression Reflect Distinct Same-Sex Sexual Orientation Biodevelopmental Pathways? 17.4.3 Research on Gender Expression and Sexual Orientation Biodevelopment 17.4.4 Summary Regarding Biodevelopmental Pathways 17.5 Future Directions 17.6 Conclusions Spotlight Feature: Born to Bottom? Spotlight Feature: Evidence for a Curvilinear Androgen Dose Response in Sexual Differentiation of Brain and Behavior References Chapter 18: Mental Health Among LGBT Youth 18.1 Minority Stress Experiences of LGBT Adolescents 18.2 Mental Health Disparities Among LGBT Adolescents 18.2.1 Suicidality 18.2.2 Depression and Other Internalizing Symptoms 18.2.3 Substance Use 18.2.4 Protective Factors, Coping, and Prevention 18.3 Limitations and Future Directions 18.4 Conclusion Spotlight Feature: Mental Health and Minority Stress Experiences Among Gender-Nonconforming Children Spotlight Feature: Gender and Sexual Diversity in Autism References Chapter 19: Asexuality: When Sexual Attraction Is Lacking 19.1 What Is Asexuality? 19.1.1 Definition 19.1.2 Prevalence 19.1.3 Gender Differences 19.1.4 Sexual Activity and Asexuality 19.1.5 Romantic Attractions 19.2 Overview of Alternative Explanations 19.2.1 Asexuality as a Mental Disorder 19.2.2 Asexuality as a Sexual Dysfunction 19.2.3 Asexuality as a Paraphilia 19.2.4 How Is Asexuality Different from Celibacy? 19.3 Challenges in Asexuality Research 19.3.1 Developing a Validated Measure of Asexuality 19.3.2 Capturing Sexual Orientation and Gender Identities 19.3.3 Measuring Sex-Related Distress 19.4 Where the Research on Asexuality Needs to Go 19.4.1 Is Asexuality a Lifelong Pattern? 19.4.2 Understanding the Biological Correlates of Asexuality 19.4.3 Further Research that Directly Tests Asexuality as a Sexual Orientation 19.5 Conclusion References Chapter 20: Erotic Target Identity Inversions 20.1 Autogynephilia 20.2 Apotemnophilia 20.3 Autopedophilia 20.4 Autoanthropomorphozoophilia 20.5 Autozoophilia 20.6 Autoandrophilia 20.7 Autonecrophilia 20.8 ETIIs as Paraphilias 20.9 ETIIs in Natal Females 20.10 Sexual Masochism as an Alternative to ETIIs 20.11 Causes and Development of ETIIs 20.12 Future Directions References Chapter 21: Consensual Non-monogamy from a Developmental Perspective 21.1 Categories of CNM 21.2 Conducting Research with Members of Marginalized Groups 21.3 Developmental Relationship Models 21.3.1 Stage-Based Developmental Theories 21.3.1.1 Theories of Romantic Relationships 21.3.1.2 Erikson´s Theory of Psychosocial Development 21.3.2 Attachment Theory and CNM 21.4 Who Engages in CNM? 21.5 Developmental Trajectories in CNM 21.6 Children in CNM Households 21.6.1 Children in Polygamous Households 21.6.2 Children in Western Polyamorous Households 21.7 Living a CNM Life in a Monogamous World 21.7.1 Stigma against CNM Individuals and Relationships 21.7.2 Stigmatized Relationships and Minority Stress 21.8 Directions for Future Research 21.9 Conclusions Spotlight Feature: Current Developments in Research Assessing Mixed-Gender Threesomes References