Metal–Crucible Interactions

Description

Metal–Crucible Interactions suggests solutions to a major challenge in high-temperature materials processing. It offers a holistic presentation of the current knowledge of metal–crucible interactions in a compact volume so that readers can make informed decisions on materials selection. Presenting practical information, this book • Provides an extensive summary of the compatibility a huge variety of metal–container combinations, assembles information about all known significant interactions, and evaluates how they are managed • Explains the underlying reasons for the occurrence and extent of incompatibility between metals and containment and presents some possible solutions • Outlines analytical experimental techniques to quantify compatibility/incompatibility • Covers issues and resolution in interrelated solid–solid, solid–liquid, solid–gas and solid–liquid–gas processes determining compatibility • Discusses all the metals - ferrous, common non ferrous, reactive and refractory metals, rare earths, and the important alloys as well as compounds and special compositions that tide over or remain prone to degradation due to compatibility issues • Highlights the value of addressing all interrelated issues in arriving at reliable solutions to compatibility challenges Aimed at readers in industries dealing with materials processing at high temperatures, research scientists and engineers, and graduate students, this book addresses a topic vital to stimulating immediate and long-term research and development, in ways not previously covered in other books. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Table of Contents Preface Acknowledgements Author Biography Chapter 1 Metal–Crucible Interactions: Evolution of Crucibles 1.1 Introduction 1.2 History of Metals Processing 1.2.1 Stone Age 1.2.2 Native Metals: Copper, Gold, Silver 1.2.3 Primitive Crucibles 1.2.4 Chalcolithic Age 1.2.5 Bronze Age 1.2.6 Iron Age 1.2.7 Middle Ages 1.2.8 Post-Medieval Period 1.2.9 Industrial Revolution and Later 1.2.10 World War II and Later 1.3 Non-Ferrous Metals 1.3.1 Copper 1.3.2 Brass 1.3.3 Tin 1.3.4 Zinc 1.4 Iron and Steel 1.4.1 Beginning of Iron Smelting 1.4.2 Blast Furnace 1.4.3 Cast Iron 1.4.4 Steel 1.4.4.1 Cementation Steel 1.4.4.2 Crucible Steel Ancient Practice 1.4.4.3 Puddling Furnace 1.4.5 Bessemer, Open Hearth, Linz–Donawitz (L-D) Processes 1.4.5.1 Open Hearth Furnace 1.4.5.2 Linz–Donawitz (L-D) Steel 1.5 Refractories in the 20th Century 1.5.1 Silicates 1.5.2 Dolomite 1.5.3 Chrome–Magnesite 1.5.4 Graphite 1.5.5 Grain and Bond Phases 1.5.6 Bricks and Monolithics 1.5.7 Refractory Bonds and Binders 1.6 Electrolytic Processes 1.6.1 Aluminium 1.7 Rare Metals 1.7.1 Special Crucibles and Protected Environment 1.8 Metal Replacement (Metallothermic) Reactions 1.8.1 Goldschmidt Process or Bomb Reduction 1.9 Consolidation and Refining 1.9.1 Vacuum Induction Melting 1.9.2 Vacuum Arc Melting 1.9.3 Electron Beam Melting 1.10 Crystal Growing 1.10.1 Crystal Growth in a Container 1.10.2 Floating Zone Technique 1.11 Summary and Scope of Crucible–Metal Interactions Chapter 2 Basics of Interactions 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Thermodynamics 2.3 The Titanium–Oxygen System 2.4 The Vanadium–Oxygen System 2.5 Components of Interaction 2.6 Wetting and Contact Angle 2.7 Porosity 2.8 Capillary Penetration 2.9 Physical Properties of Refractories 2.10 Thermal Expansion 2.11 Thermal Conductivity 2.12 Thermal Shock 2.13 Corrosion of Refractories 2.14 Chemical Dissolution in Casting 2.15 Corrosion Testing of Refractories 2.16 Summary Chapter 3 Crucible Materials 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Ceramics 3.3 Refractories 3.4 Silica-Alumina Group 3.4.1 Fireclays 3.4.2 Aluminosilicates 3.4.3 Mullite 3.4.4 Alumina 3.5 Magnesia–Lime Group 3.5.1 Magnesia 3.5.1.1 Magnesite Bricks 3.5.2 Dolomite 3.5.3 Magnesia–Chrome 3.5.3.1 MgO–Al2O 3.5.4 Magnesia–Carbon 3.6 Carbon 3.7 Beryllia 3.8 Zircon and Zirconia 3.9 Yttria 3.10 Spinels 3.11 Carbon-Containing Refractories 3.12 Barium Zirconate 3.13 Calcium Zirconate 3.14 Silicon Carbide 3.15 Borides 3.16 Boron Nitride 3.17 Silicon Nitride and Sialon 3.18 Aluminium Nitride 3.19 Coatings on Crucibles 3.20 Summary Chapter 4 Major Melt—Crucible Systems 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Iron and Steel 4.3 Blast Furnace Refractories 4.4 Steel-Making Refractories 4.4.1 Refractories for Secondary Steel 4.4.2 Refractories for Casting 4.5 The Hall–Héroult Cell 4.5.1 Interactions in the Cell 4.5.2 Barrier Refractory 4.5.3 Side Lining Materials 4.6 Post-Reduction Treatment of Aluminium 4.6.1 Refractories in Aluminium Melting and Holding Furnaces 4.6.2 Alumina–Silica Refractories 4.6.3 Belly Band Zone 4.7 Management of Aluminium Penetration 4.7.1 Anti-Wetting Additions 4.7.2 Phosphate Bonding 4.8 Refractory Inclusions 4.9 Refractories Resistant to Molten Aluminium 4.10 Copper 4.10.1 Smelter 4.10.2 Converter 4.10.3 The Mag–Chrome Refractory 4.10.4 Calcia–Magnesia 4.10.5 Olivine Slags 4.11 Less Common Metals 4.12 Metallothermy 4.13 Reduction of Uranium Tetrafluoride 4.14 Reduction of Thorium Tetrafluoride 4.15 Reduction of Oxides 4.16 Reactions in the Absence of Metal Vapour 4.17 Kroll Reductions 4.17.1 Reduction Plant 4.17.2 Magnesium Reduction of Zirconium Tetrachloride 4.17.3 Bimetal Reduction 4.17.4 Crucible Contamination 4.17.5 Magnesium Reduction of Niobium and Tantalum Pentachlorides 4.18 Lithium Reduction of Rare Earth Trichlorides 4.19 Ingot Reduction Processes 4.19.1 Reduction in a Tantalum Crucible 4.19.2 Reduction of Rare Earth Fluorides 4.19.3 Calcium Reduction (Ames Process) 4.19.4 Goldschmidt Process 4.20 Oxide Reduction Processes 4.21 Fused Salt Electrolysis 4.22 Oxide–Fluoride Electrolysis 4.22.1 Gray’s Cell 4.22.2 Reno Cell Type 6 4.22.3 Reno Cell Type 12 4.22.4 High-Temperature Electrowinning Cell 4.23 Crucible Contamination in Rare Earth Reduction 4.24 Pyrovacuum Treatments 4.24.1 Rare Earth Metals 4.24.1.1 Lanthanum, Cerium, Praseodymium and Neodymium 4.24.1.2 Yttrium, Gadolinium, Terbium and Lutetium 4.24.1.3 Scandium, Dysprosium, Holmium, Erbium and Lutetium 4.24.1.4 Samarium, Europium, Thulium and Ytterbium 4.24.2 Uranium 4.24.3 Vanadium 4.25 Titanium 4.25.1 Melting Techniques 4.25.2 Induction Melting 4.25.3 Skull Melting 4.25.3.1 Induction Skull Melting or Cold Crucible Induction Melting (CCIM) 4.25.3.2 Vacuum Arc Melting (VAR) 4.25.3.3 Electron Beam Melting (EBM) 4.25.4 Castings 4.25.5 Moulds 4.25.6 Crucibles for Titanium Metal 4.25.6.1 The Oxides: Al2O3, BeO, ThO2, CaO, MgO 4.25.6.2 Zirconia 4.25.6.3 Rare Earth Oxides 4.25.6.4 Yttria 4.25.6.5 Carbon, Graphite and Carbide Crucibles 4.25.6.6 Borides 4.25.6.7 Sulphides 4.25.7 Crucibles for Titanium Alloys 4.25.8 TiAl Alloys 4.25.8.1 Zirconia (Stabilized) Crucible 4.25.8.2 Yttria 4.25.8.3 Calcia 4.25.8.4 Graphite 4.25.8.5 Nitrides: AlN and BN 4.25.8.6 The Zirconates 4.25.8.7 CCIM 4.25.8.8 EBM 4.25.9 NiTi(-X)-Based Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) 4.25.9.1 Barium Zirconate (Calcia-Doped) Crucibles 4.25.9.2 VAR and EBM 4.25.10 Hydrogen Storage Alloys 4.26 Summary References Index