Heating and Cooling with Ground-Source Heat Pumps in Moderate and Cold Climates, Two-Volume Set

Description

Heating and Cooling with Ground-Source Heat Pumps in Moderate and Cold Climates, Two-Volume Set focuses on the use of very low-temperature geothermal energy for heating and cooling residential, institutional, and industrial buildings, and aims to increase the design community’s awareness and knowledge of the benefits, design, and installation requirements of commercial/institutional building ground-source heat pumps (GSHP). This set helps readers assess applicability, select a GSHP system type, and estimate building thermal load to ensure proper size for ground-source subsystems, appropriate brine and groundwater flow rates, and apt design of building closed-loops with distributed or central geothermal heat pumps. The first volume addresses fundamentals and design principles of vertical and horizontal indirect and direct expansion closed-loop, as well as ground- and surface-water ground-source heat pump systems. It explains the thermodynamic aspects of mechanical and thermochemical compression cycles of geothermal heat pumps, as well as the energetic, economic, and environmental aspects associated with the use of ground-source heat pump systems for heating and cooling residential and commercial/institutional buildings in moderate and cold climates. The second volume focuses on applications and cases studies of ground-source heat pumps in moderate and cold climates. It details technical aspects, as well as the most common and uncommon application fields of basic system configurations. The principles of system integrations and applications in moderate and cold climates are also presented, each followed by case studies. This comprehensive work is aimed at designers of HVAC systems, as well as geological, mechanical, and chemical engineers implementing environmentally-friendly heating and cooling technologies for buildings. Cover Volume1 Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Preface - Volume 1 Biography Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: Outlook for Building Heating and Cooling Loads, and Simulation Tools 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Outdoor and Indoor Design Conditions 2.3 Residential Buildings 2.3.1 Heating Loads 2.3.2 Cooling Loads 2.4 Commercial and Institutional Buildings 2.4.1 Heating Loads 2.4.2 Cooling Loads 2.5 Building Simulation Software Tools References Chapter 3: Conventional Building HVAC Systems 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Residential and Small Commercial/Institutional Buildings 3.2.1 Air-Source Heat Pump and Furnace Split Systems 3.2.2 Dual (Hybrid)-Energy Source Heat Pump Systems 3.2.3 Heat-Augmented Heat Exchanger 3.2.4 Brine Heat Exchanger 3.2.5 Add-On Heat Exchanger 3.2.6 Mini-Split Air-Source Heat Pump Systems 3.3 Large-Scale Commercial/Institutional Buildings 3.3.1 All-Air HVAC Systems 3.3.2 All-Water HVAC Systems 3.3.3 Air-Water HVAC Systems References Chapter 4: Geothermal Energy Resources 4.1 Introduction 4.2 High-Temperature (Deep) Geothermal Energy 4.3 Medium-Temperature Geothermal Resources 4.4 Low-Temperature Geothermal Resources 4.5 Very-Low (Shallow) Geothermal Energy References Chapter 5: Ground/Soil Types and Thermo-Physical Properties 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Ground/Soil Types 5.3 Density 5.4 Mass Specific Heat 5.5 Thermal Resistivity and Thermal Stability 5.6 Moisture Content 5.7 Thermal and Hydraulic Conductivity 5.8 Thermal Diffusivity References Chapter 6: Determination of Ground/Soil Effective Thermal Conductivity 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Laboratory Methods 6.3 In-Field Experimental Method 6.3.1 Mobile Apparatus 6.3.2 Testing Procedure 6.3.3 Evaluation of Thermal Conductivity References Chapter 7: Classifications of Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Classification According to Application Field 7.3 Classification According to Heat/Sink Sources and Common Configurations References Chapter 8: Geothermal Heat Pumps 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Thermodynamic Parameters 8.3 Subcritical Mechanical Vapor Compression Geothermal Heat Pumps 8.3.1 Energy Balance and Thermal Efficiency 8.3.2 Exergy Analysis 8.3.2.1 Definitions References Chapter 9: Refrigerant-to-Air Condensers 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Typical Construction 9.3 Thermal Design Reference Chapter 10: Air-to-Refrigerant Evaporators 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Construction 10.2.1 Tubes 10.2.2 Refrigerant Distribution 10.2.3 Fins 10.2.4 Air Distribution 10.2.5 Condense Draining 10.2.6 Materials 10.2.7 Moisture Frosting 10.3 Design 10.3.1 Air Side 10.3.2 Refrigerant-Side 10.3.3 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 10.3.4 Heat Transfer Rate References Chapter 11: Closed-Loop (Indirect, Secondary Fluid) Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Building Closed-Loops with Distributed Geothermal Heat Pumps 11.3 Central Geothermal Heat Pumps 11.4 Materials 11.5 Brine and Water Pumping 11.5.1 Centrifugal Pumps 11.5.2 System and Pump Curves 11.5.3 Friction Losses and Pressure Drops 11.5.4 Pumping Power 11.5.5 Pump Efficiency 11.5.6 Affinity Laws 11.5.7 Pump Arrangements 11.5.7.1 Parallel 11.5.7.2 Series References Chapter 12: Vertical Closed-Loop (Indirect, Secondary Fluid) Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Residential and Small Commercial/Institutional Buildings 12.2.1 Operating Modes 12.3 Large-Scale Commercial/Institutional Buildings References Chapter 13: Heat Transfer 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Heat Transfer Inside Boreholes 13.2.1 Borehole Equivalent Diameter 13.2.2 Heat Transfer Structure 13.2.3 Borehole Thermal Resistance 13.3 Heat Transfer Outside Boreholes 13.3.1 Heat Flux and Temperature Profile 13.3.2 Analytical Models 13.3.2.1 Infinite Line-Source Model 13.3.2.2 Infinite Cylindrical-Source Theory 13.3.3 Numerical Models 13.3.3.1 Long-Time Step Temperature Response Factors 13.3.3.2 Short-Time Step Temperature Response Factors References Chapter 14: Horizontal Closed-Loop (Indirect, Secondary Fluid) Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Residential and Small-Scale Commercial/Institutional Buildings 14.2.1 Operating Modes 14.3 Large-Scale Commercial/Institutional Buildings 14.4 Heat and Mass Transfer 14.4.1 Ground/Soil Surface 14.4.1.1 Solar Incident (Direct) Short-Wave Radiation 14.4.1.2 Sky Long-Wave Thermal Radiation 14.4.1.3 Convective Heat Transfer 14.4.1.4 Latent (Evaporation/Condensation) Heat Transfer 14.4.1.5 Precipitation (Sensible) Heat Transfer 14.5 Temperature of Ground/Soil 14.6 Heat Transfer Around Horizontal Buried Pipes 14.6.1 Single Horizontal Pipe 14.6.2 Multiple Horizontal Pipes 14.7 Flow Inside Horizontal Pipes 14.7.1 Friction Losses 14.8 Heat Transfer Inside Horizontal pipes References Chapter 15: Closed-Loop Direct Expansion (Mono-Fluid) Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Basic Concepts and Operating Principle 15.3 Advantages 15.4 Limitations 15.5 Horizontal Direct Expansion Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 15.5.1 Basic Concepts 15.5.2 In-Tube Refrigerant Vaporization 15.5.2.1 Two-Phase Flow Patterns 15.5.2.2 Pressure Drops 15.5.2.3 Heat Transfer 15.5.3 In-Tube Refrigerant Condensation 15.5.3.1 Flow Pattern 15.5.3.2 Heat Transfer 15.5.4 Heat Transfer Around the Horizontal Tubes 15.5.4.1 Single Tube 15.5.4.2 Multiple Tubes 15.6 Vertical Direct Expansion Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 15.6.1 Basic Concepts 15.6.2 Kaye's Improved Concept 15.6.3 Minea's Improved Concept 15.6.4 Refrigerant-Side Vaporization 15.6.4.1 Flow Patterns 15.6.4.2 Pressure Drops 15.6.4.3 Heat Transfer 15.6.4.4 Refrigerant-Side Condensation References Chapter 16: Closed-Loop Vertical Thermo-Syphon Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Basic Configurations 16.3 Working Fluids 16.4 Operating Principle 16.5 Density and Pressure Profiles 16.6 Temperature Profile 16.7 Velocity Profile 16.8 Heat Transfer 16.8.1 Pool Boiling in Evaporator 16.8.2 Film Condensation 16.8.3 Thermal Resistances 16.8.3.1 Evaporator 16.8.3.2 Condenser 16.8.3.3 Overall Thermal Resistance 16.8.4 Energy Performance 16.9 Advantages and Limitations 16.10 Further R&D Needs References Chapter 17: Open-Loop Groundwater Heat Pump Systems 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Aquifers 17.3 Groundwater Quality 17.4 Groundwater Table 17.5 Physical Properties 17.6 Potential Problems 17.6.1 Scaling 17.6.2 Corrosion 17.6.3 Clogging and Fouling 17.6.4 Organisms 17.6.5 Sand 17.7 Thermal Storage 17.8 Maintenance Aspects 17.9 Advantages 17.10 Limitations References Chapter 18: Open-Loop, Dual and Multiple-Well Groundwater Heat Pump Systems 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Basic Configurations 18.2.1 Residential and Small-Scale Commercial/Institutional Buildings 18.2.2 Large-Scale Commercial/Institutional Buildings 18.3 Groundwater Wells 18.3.1 Production (Supply) Wells 18.3.2 Return (Injection) Wells 18.4 Groundwater Pumping 18.4.1 Groundwater Submersible Well Pumps 18.4.2 Groundwater Flow Testing References Chapter 19: Open-Loop Single-Well (Standing Column) Groundwater Heat Pump Systems 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Standing Column Wells 19.3 Basic Concepts 19.4 Groundwater Flow 19.4.1 Flow Outside Standing Columns 19.4.2 Flow Inside Standing Columns 19.5 Groundwater Bleeding 19.6 Heat Transfer Around and Inside Standing Columns 19.6.1 Heat Transfer Around Standing Column Wells 19.6.2 Heat Transfer Inside Standing Column Wells References Chapter 20: Surface Water Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Basic Concepts 20.2.1 Open-Loop Systems 20.2.2 Closed-Loop Systems 20.3 Moving and Stationary Surface Waters 20.3.1 Thermodynamic Properties 20.3.2 Thermal Stratification, Mixing, and Turnover 20.3.3 Heat Transfer in Lakes 20.4 Design and Installation Principles 20.5 Advantages and Limitations References Chapter 21: Advantages and Limitations of Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Advantages 21.2.1 Energy Source Quality and System Efficiency 21.2.2 Technology Feasibility and Building Integration 21.2.3 Capital Costs 21.2.4 Operating Costs 21.2.5 Maintenance Costs 21.2.6 Payback Period 21.2.7 Life Cycle Costs 21.2.8 Environmental Impacts 21.3 Limitations References Chapter 22: Future R&D Requirements 22.1 Introduction 22.2 General Heat Pumping Context 22.3 Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems References Index Volume2 Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Preface - Volume 2 Author Biography Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: Vertical Closed-Loop (Indirect, Secondary Fluid) Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Design Principles and Steps 2.2.1 Types of Vertical Ground-Coupled Heat Exchangers 2.2.2 Borehole Field Configurations 2.2.2.1 Residential and Small Commercial/Institutional Buildings 2.2.2.2 Large Commercial/Institutional Buildings 2.2.3 Design Principles 2.2.4 Length of Vertical Ground-Coupled Heat Exchangers 2.3 Drilling Vertical Boreholes 2.3.1 Drilling Methods 2.3.1.1 Rotary Drilling 2.3.1.2 Auger Drilling 2.3.1.3 Hammer Drilling 2.3.2 Main Components of Drilling Tools 2.3.3 Potential Problems and Environmental Aspects 2.4 Installation Principles 2.4.1 Grouting 2.4.1.1 Cement-Based Grouts 2.4.1.2 Thermally Enhanced and Advanced Grouts 2.5 System Start-Up and Testing 2.6 Outlook on Design Tools 2.6.1 TRNSYS 2.6.2 Earth Energy Design (EED) 2.6.3 GSHPCalc 2.6.4 GLHEPro 2.6.5 GLD 2.6.6 POLYSUN 2.6.7 Modelica 2.6.8 IDA ICE 2.6.9 GS2000 2.6.10 CLGS 2.7 Case Studies 2.7.1 Case Study No. 1: Secondary School in Central Canadian Cold Climate 2.7.1.1 Introduction 2.7.1.2 Building Description 2.7.1.3 System Description 2.7.1.4 Simulation Procedure 2.7.1.5 Simulated Results 2.7.2 Case Study No. 2: Secondary School in Eastern Canadian Cold Climate 2.7.2.1 Introduction 2.7.2.2 Building Description 2.7.2.3 System Description 2.7.2.4 Construction Costs 2.7.2.5 Control Strategy 2.7.2.6 Experimental Results 2.7.3 Case Study No. 3: Commercial Building in Eastern Canadian Cold Climate 2.7.3.1 Introduction 2.7.3.2 Building and System Characteristics 2.7.3.3 Experimental Results 2.7.4 Case Study No. 4: Greenhouse in Japanese Moderate Climate 2.7.4.1 Introduction 2.7.4.2 System Description 2.7.4.3 Experimental Results 2.7.5 Case Study No. 5: Office Building in North American Cold Climate 2.7.5.1 Introduction 2.7.5.2 Old and New Building and HVAC Systems 2.7.5.3 Experimental Results 2.7.6 Case Study No. 6 - Residence in North American Moderate Climate 2.7.6.1 Introduction 2.7.6.2 Home Description 2.7.6.3 System Description 2.7.6.4 Experimental Results References Chapter 3: Horizontal Closed-Loop (Indirect, Secondary Fluid) Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Design Principles 3.2.1 Residential and Small Commercial/Institutional Buildings 3.2.2 Large-Scale Commercial/Institutional Buildings 3.3 Installation and Start-up 3.4 Advantages 3.5 Limitations 3.6 Case Studies - Horizontal Closed-Loop (Indirect, Secondary Fluid) Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 3.6.1 Case Study No. 1: Professional School in the Eastern Canadian Cold Climate 3.6.1.1 Introduction 3.6.1.2 Building Description 3.6.1.3 System Description 3.6.1.4 Construction Costs 3.6.1.5 Measurement Strategy 3.6.1.6 Experimental Results 3.6.2 Case Study No. 2: Institutional Building in a Very Cold Climate 3.6.2.1 Introduction 3.6.2.2 Building and System Description 3.6.2.3 Experimental Results 3.6.3 Case Study No. 3: High School in Moderate Climate 3.6.3.1 Introduction 3.6.3.2 Building Description 3.6.3.3 System Description 3.6.3.3 Experimental Results 3.6.4 Case Study No. 4: High School in Moderate Climate 3.6.4.1 Building and System Description 3.6.4.2 Experimental Results References Chapetr 4: Open-Loop Multi-Well Groundwater Heat Pump Systems 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Design Principles 4.3 Case Studies - Open-Loop Multiple-Well Groundwater Heat Pump Systems 4.3.1 Case Study No. 1: Institutional (Office) Building in Temperate Climate 4.3.1.1 Geothermal System 4.3.1.2 Historic Operational Problems 4.3.1.4 Leading Results 4.3.2 Case Study No. 2: Institutional (Office) Building in a Cold Climate 4.3.2.1 Introduction 4.3.2.2 System Description 4.3.2.3 Experimental Results 4.3.2.4 Lessons Learned 4.3.3 Case Study No. 3: Institutional (County Jail) Building in a Moderate (Dry and Cool) Climate 4.3.3.1 System Description 4.3.3.2 Original System 4.3.3.3 Operating Problems 4.3.3.4 Recommended Modifications 4.3.4 Case Study No. 4: Institutional (County Courthouse and Jail) Building in a Moderate (Dry and Cool) Climate 4.3.4.1 System Description 4.3.4.2 System Description 4.3.4.3 Operating Experience and System Improvements 4.3.4.4 Conclusions References Chapter 5: Open-Loop, Single-Well (Standing-Column) Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Design Principles 5.3 Advantages 5.4 Limitations 5.5 Case Study - Laboratory Case Study in an Eastern Canadian Cold Climate 5.5.1 Introduction 5.5.2 Context 5.5.3 Experimental Setup 5.5.4 Experimental Results 5.5.4.1 Continuous Heating Mode at Full Capacity 5.5.4.2 Intermittent Heating Mode at Full Capacity 5.5.4.3 Heating Mode at Partial Capacity 5.5.4.4 Mechanical Cooling Mode 5.5.4.5 Direct Cooling Mode 5.5.5 Application Issues References Chapter 6: Horizontal Closed-Loop Direct Expansion Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Design Principles 6.3 Case Studies - Horizontal Direct Expansion Ground-Coupled Heat Pump Systems 6.3.1 Case Study No. 1: Residence in Eastern Canadian Cold Climate 6.3.1.1 Introduction 6.3.1.2 House Description 6.3.1.3 System Description 6.3.1.4 Experimental Results 6.3.2 Case Study No. 2: Residence in Central Canadian Cold Climate 6.3.2.1 House and System Description 6.3.2.2 Experimental Results and Lessons Learned 6.3.3 Case Study No. 3: Greenhouse in Canadian Eastern Cold Climate 6.3.3.1 Introduction 6.3.3.2 Greenhouse Description 6.3.3.3 System Description 6.3.3.4 Experimental Results 6.3.3.5 Lessons Learned 6.3.4 Case Study No. 4: Pig Nursery (Piggery) in Eastern Canadian Cold Climate 6.3.4.1 Introduction 6.3.4.2 Building Description 6.3.4.3 System Description 6.3.4.4 Experimental Results 6.3.4.5 Lessons Learned References Chapter 7: Vertical Direct Expansion Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Design Principles 7.3 Case Studies 7.3.1 Laboratory Case Study No. 1: United States 7.3.1.1 Experimental Results 7.3.2 Laboratory Case Study No. 2: Japan 7.3.2.1 System Description 7.3.2.2 Experimental Results 7.3.3 Case Study No. 3: Japan 7.3.3.1 System Description 7.3.3.2 Experimental Results 7.3.4 Laboratory Case Study No. 4: Canada 7.3.4.1 Design of Experimental Setup 7.4 Experimental Validation 7.4.1 Short Cycles in Heating Mode 7.4.2 Long Cycles in Heating Mode References Chapter 8: Closed-Loop Vertical Thermo-Syphon Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Design Principles 8.3 Thermal Operating Limits 8.4 Case Studies 8.4.1 Case Study No. 1: CO2 8.4.1.1 Description of Laboratory Setups 8.4.1.2 Experimental Results 8.4.1.3 Optimization Aspects 8.4.2 Case Study No. 2: CO2 8.4.2.1 Test Rig Setup 8.4.2.2 Experimental Results 8.4.3 Case Study No. 3: Propane 8.4.3.1 System Description 8.4.3.2 Experimental Results 8.4.4 Case Study No. 4: Inclined Horizontal CO2 Thermo-Syphon 8.4.4.1 Laboratory Setup 8.4.4.2 Experimental Results References Chapter 9: Municipal Water-Based Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Municipal Water Sources and Distribution Networks 9.3 Geothermal Heat Pump Systems Using Municipal Water 9.4 Benefits and Limitations 9.5 Case Study References Chapter 10: Municipal Sewage-Based Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Sewage Wastewater Quality 10.3 Design Principles 10.4 Advantages and Limitations References Chapter 11: Building Energy Foundation-Based Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Design Configurations and Construction Principles 11.3 Heat Transfer Aspects 11.4 Potential Benefits 11.5 Potential Limitations 11.6 Case Studies 11.6.1 Case Study No. 1: Japanese Experimental Building 11.6.1.1 Building and System Description 11.6.1.2 Experimental Results 11.6.2 Case Study No. 2: European Single- and Two-Story Houses 11.6.2.1 Houses' Locations and Characteristics 11.6.2.2 Simulation Strategy and Main Results 11.6.3 Case Study No. 3: North American Single-Story Houses 11.6.3.1 Simulation Strategy and Main Results 11.6.4 Case Study No. 4: Swedish Single-Story Houses 11.6.4.1 House and System Description 11.6.4.2 Simulated Results References Chapter 12: Solar-Assisted Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Solar Radiation 12.3 Solar Passive Thermal Collectors 12.4 Configurations of Solar-Assisted Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 12.4.1 Series Arrangements 12.4.2 Parallel Arrangements 12.5 Control Strategies 12.6 Advantages 12.7 Limitations 12.8 Case Studies 12.8.1 Case Study No. 1: Residence in a Moderate Climate 12.8.1.1 Introduction 12.8.1.2 House and System Description 12.8.1.3 Experimental Results 12.8.2 Case Study No. 2: House in a Cold Climate 12.8.2.1 House Description 12.8.2.2 System Description 12.8.2.3 Simulated Results 12.8.2.4 Experimental Results 12.8.3 Case Study No. 3: Typical School Building in Several North American Climates 12.8.3.1 Typical School Building 12.8.3.2 System Description 12.8.3.3 Simulated Results 12.8.4 Case Study No. 4: Greenhouse in a Moderate Climate 12.8.4.1 System Description 12.8.4.2 Experimental Results References Chapter 13: Snow Melting Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Surface Conditions 13.2.1 Roads and Pavements 13.2.1.1 Mass Transfer 13.2.1.2 Heat Transfer 13.2.2 Bridge Decks 13.3 Conventional Snow/Ice Melting Systems 13.4 Ground-Source Heat Pump-Based Melting Systems 13.4.1 Advantages and Limitations 13.5 Further R&D Needs 13.6 Case Studies 13.6.1 Case Study No. 1: Snow/Ice Melting on Pavements 13.6.1.1 Introduction 13.6.1.2 Prediction Tool for the Snow Melting System 13.6.1.3 Simulated Results 13.6.2 Case Study No. 2: Snow/Ice Melting on a Bridge Deck 13.6.2.1 System Description 13.6.2.2 Simulation Procedure 13.6.2.3 Simulated Results References Chapter 14: Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems for Low-Energy Buildings 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Definitions 14.3 Technologies for Low-Energy Buildings 14.4 Benefits and Limitations 14.5 Case Studies 14.5.1 Case Study No. 1: Canadian Low-Energy House 14.5.1.1 Introduction 14.5.1.2 House Description 14.5.1.3 Description of HVAC System 14.5.1.4 First Winter Experimental Results 14.5.1.5 Annual Experimental Results 14.5.1.6 Multi-Year Experimental Results 14.5.2 Case Study No. 2: Japanese Low-Energy House 14.5.2.1 Introduction 14.5.2.2 House and HVAC System Description 14.5.2.3 Experimental Results 14.5.3 Case Study No. 3: Canadian Net-Zero Energy House References Chapter 15: Mine Water Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Characteristics of Mine Water 15.3 Open-Loop Systems 15.4 Closed-Loop Systems 15.5 Potential Benefits 15.6 Limitations 15.7 Present and Future Opportunities References Chapter 16: District Heating and Cooling Geothermal Systems 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Conventional District Heating and Cooling Systems 16.2.1 High- and Medium-Temperature District Heating Networks 16.2.1.1 Energy Sources and Heat Generation 16.2.1.2 Heat Distribution 16.2.2 District Cooling Networks 16.2.3 Benefits 16.2.3.1 District Heating 16.2.3.2 District Cooling 16.2.4 Limitations 16.3 Low-Temperature Ground-Source Heat Pump-Assisted District Systems 16.4 Future R&D Needs 16.5 Case Studies - District Heating and Cooling 16.5.1 Case Study No. 1: Helsinki, Finland 16.5.2 Case Study No. 2: London, UK 16.5.3 Case Study No. 3: The Hague, Netherlands 16.5.4 Case Study No. 4: Stockholm, Sweden References Chapter 17: Hybrid Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Description of Technology 17.2.1 Heating-Dominated Buildings 17.2.2 Cooling-Dominated Buildings 17.3 Design Principles 17.4 Advantages and Limitations 17.5 Case Studies 17.5.1 Case Study No. 1: Administrative Building 17.5.2 Case Study No. 2: Small Office Building 17.5.3 Case Study No. 3: Navy Training Center 17.5.4 Case Study No. 4: Kindergarten School Building References Index