Elemental geosystems

Description

Cover......Page 1 Title Page......Page 15 Copyright Page......Page 16 Contents......Page 19 Book and MasteringGeography™ Walkthrough......Page 5 MasteringGeography™ Mobile-Ready Animations & Videos......Page 29 Preface......Page 30 Digital & Print Resources......Page 35 1 Essentials of Geography......Page 38 GEOSYSTEMSnow Shale Gas: An Energy Resource for the Future?......Page 39 The Science of Geography......Page 40 The Scientific Process......Page 42 Human–Earth Interactions in the 21st Century......Page 44 GEOReport 1.1 Welcome to the Anthropocene......Page 45 Systems Organization in Elemental Geosystems......Page 48 GEOReport 1.2 Earth’s unique hydrosphere......Page 49 Latitude......Page 52 CRITICALthinking 1.2 Latitudinal Geographic Zones and Temperature......Page 53 CRITICALthinking 1.3 Where Are you?......Page 54 GEOReport 1.3 The world’s most accurate clock......Page 56 CRITICALthinking 1.4 Find and Calculate Map Scales......Page 57 Modern Tools and Techniques for Geoscience......Page 60 Global Positioning System......Page 61 GEOReport 1.4 GPS origins......Page 62 Geospatial Data Analysis......Page 65 Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 66 GEOSYSTEMS in action 1: EXPLORING EARTH SYSTEMS......Page 50 GEOReport 1.5 Polar-orbiting satellites predict Hurricane Sandy’s path......Page 64 VISUALanalysis 1 Remote Sensing......Page 69 PART I: The Energy–Atmosphere System......Page 70 2 Solar Energy, Seasons, and the Atmosphere......Page 72 GEOSYSTEMSnow Humans Explore the Atmosphere......Page 73 The Solar System, Sun, and Earth......Page 74 Solar Energy: From Sun to Earth......Page 76 The Seasons......Page 80 GEO Report 2.2 Earth’s evolving atmosphere......Page 86 Pollutants in the Atmosphere......Page 94 Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 104 focusstudy 2.1 Pollution......Page 100 GEOsystems in action 2: Earth-sun relations......Page 84 CRITICAL thinking 2.1 A Way to Calculate Sunrise and Sunset......Page 81 GEO Report 2.1 Measuring Earth’s rotation......Page 82 CRITICAL thinking 2.3 Where Is Your Tropopause?......Page 91 CRITICAL thinking 2.4 Finding Your Local Ozone......Page 93 CRITICAL thinking 2.5 Evaluating Costs andBenefits......Page 102 THE humanDENOMINATOR: Seasons and the Atmosphere......Page 103 GEOReport 2.3 Outside the airplane......Page 87 GEOReport 2.4 Carbon monoxide—the colorless, odorless pollutant......Page 96 VISUALanalysis 2 The Atmosphere......Page 107 3 Atmospheric Energy and Global Temperatures......Page 108 GEOSYSTEMSnow Melting Sea Ice Opens Arctic Shipping Lanes; However......Page 109 Energy-Balance Essentials......Page 110 CRITICALthinking 3.1 A Kelp Indicator of Surface Energy Dynamics......Page 115 Energy Balance at Earth’s Surface......Page 117 GEOReport 3.2 The hottest temperature on Earth......Page 124 GEOReport 3.3 Iran desert has highest land-surface temperature......Page 125 CRITICALthinking 3.3 Compare and Explain Coastaland Inl and Temperatures......Page 129 Human impacts on Energy Balance and Temperature......Page 136 Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 141 focusstudy 3.1 Sustainable Resources......Page 122 GEOsystems in action 3: EARTH–ATMOSPHERE ENERGY BALANCE......Page 118 CRITICALthinking 3.2 Applying Energy-BalancePrinciples to a Solar Cooker......Page 121 CRITICALthinking 3.4 L ooking at Your Surface EnergyBudget......Page 137 THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Energy Balance and Global Temperatures......Page 140 GEOReport 3.1 Did light refraction sink the Titanic?......Page 113 GEOReport 3.4 Polar regions show greatest rates of warming......Page 135 4 Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulations......Page 144 GEOSYSTEMSnow California’s Santa ana Winds......Page 145 GEOReport 4.1 Blowing in the wind......Page 146 Driving Forces within the Atmosphere......Page 148 Atmospheric Patterns of Motion......Page 154 CRITICALthinking 4.2 What Causes the North Australian Monsoon?......Page 165 Natural Oscillations in Global Circulation......Page 170 Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 175 focusstudy 4.1 Sustainable Resources......Page 168 GEOsystems in action 4: ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION......Page 158 CRITICALthinking 4.1 Measure the Wind......Page 149 THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Global Circulation......Page 174 GEOReport 4.2 Coriolis: Not a force on sinks or toilets......Page 152 GEOReport 4.3 Icelandic ash caught in the jet stream......Page 163 GEOReport 4.4 2010–2011 La Niña breaks records......Page 173 VISUALanalysis 4 Atmospheric Circulation......Page 177 PART II: the Water, Weather, and Climate Systems......Page 178 5 Atmospheric Water and Weather......Page 180 GEOSYSTEMSnow On the Front Lines of Intense Weather......Page 181 Water’s Unique Properties......Page 182 Humidity......Page 186 Atmospheric Stability......Page 189 Clouds and Fog......Page 192 CRITICALthinking 5.3 Identify Two Kinds of Fog......Page 196 Atmospheric Lifting Mechanisms......Page 197 Midlatitude Cyclonic Systems......Page 202 Weather Maps and Forecasting......Page 203 GEOReport 5.3 Kentucky ice storm causes record power losses......Page 206 Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 219 focusstudy 5.1 Natural Hazards......Page 214 GEOsystems in action 5: MIDLATITUDE CYCLONES......Page 204 CRITICALthinking 5.1 Iceberg Analysis......Page 184 CRITICALthinking 5.2 Using Relative Humidity and Dew-Point Maps......Page 188 CRITICALthinking 5.4 Hazard Perception and Planning: What Seems to Be Missing?......Page 217 THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Weather......Page 218 GEOReport 5.1 Katrina had the power......Page 185 GEOReport 5.2 Mountains cause record rains......Page 200 GEOReport 5.4 Research aircraft dissect Hurricane Karl......Page 216 6 Water Resources......Page 222 GEOSYSTEMSnow Environmental Change at Earth’s Largest Lake......Page 223 GEOReport 6.1 The water we use......Page 224 The Hydrologic Cycle......Page 225 Water Budgets and Resource Analysis......Page 228 CRITICALthinking 6.1 Your Local Water Budget......Page 233 GEOReport 6.3 How is water measured?......Page 237 Our Water Supply......Page 246 Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 251 focusstudy 6.1 Climate Change......Page 238 GEOsystems in action 6: GROUNDWA TER......Page 242 GEOReport 6.5 The water cost of food and necessities......Page 247 CRITICALthinking 6.3 That Next Glass of Water......Page 249 THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Water Use......Page 250 GEOReport 6.2 Harvesting fog as a water resource......Page 226 GEOReport 6.4 Satellite GRACE enables groundwater measurements......Page 240 VISUALanalysis 6 Dryland Agriculture......Page 253 7 Earth’s Climatic Regions......Page 254 GEOSYSTEMSnow A Close-up Look at New Zealand’s Climate......Page 255 Classifying Earth’s Climates......Page 256 THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Climate Regions......Page 280 GEOsystems in action 7: EARTH’S CLIMATE SYSTEM......Page 258 CRITICALthinking 7.1 Finding Your Climate......Page 257 CRITICALthinking 7.2 Assessing Impacts as Climate Regions Shift......Page 277 GEOReport 7.1 Tropical climate zones advance to higher latitudes......Page 264 GEOReport 7.2 Boundary considerations and shifting climates......Page 271 GEOReport 7.3 Tundra climates respond to warming......Page 274 8 Climate Change......Page 282 GEOSYSTEMSnow Greenhouse Gases Awaken in the Arctic......Page 283 Population Growth and Fossil-Fuel Burning—The Setting for Climate Change......Page 284 CRITICALthinking 8.1 Crossing the 450-ppm Threshold for Carbon Dioxide......Page 286 Mechanisms of Natural Climate Fluctuation......Page 294 Climate Feedbacks and the Carbon Budget......Page 295 Evidence for Present Climate Change......Page 300 Causes of Present Climate Change......Page 305 GEOReport 8.3 Causes of extreme weather events in a changing climate......Page 309 The Path ahead......Page 312 Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 316 focusstudy 8.1 Climate Change......Page 298 GEOsystems in action 8: THE GLOBAL CARBON BUDGET......Page 296 CRITICALthinking 8.3 Consider Your Carbon Footprint......Page 313 THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Taking Action on Climate Change......Page 315 GEOReport 8.1 Rainfall over Australia temporarily halts global sea-level rise......Page 304 GEOReport 8.2 China leads the world in overall CO2 emissions......Page 306 VISUALanalysis 8 Wildfire, Clouds, climatic regions, and climate change......Page 317 PART III: The Earth–Atmosphere Interface......Page 318 9 The Dynamic Planet......Page 320 GEOSYSTEMSnow Earth’s Migrating Magnetic Poles......Page 321 The Pace of Change......Page 322 CRITICALthinking 9.1 thoughts about an “Anthropocene Epoch”......Page 324 Earth Materials and the Rock Cycle......Page 328 Plate Tectonics......Page 332 GEOReport 9.4 The largest volcano on Earth......Page 341 Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 346 focusstudy 9.1 Sustainable Resources......Page 344 GEOsystems in action 9: THE GEOLOGIC CYCLE......Page 342 GEOReport 9.3 Spreading along the East Pacific Rise......Page 337 THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Earth Materials and Plate......Page 345 GEOReport 9.1 Radioactive elements drive Earth’s internal heat......Page 325 GEOReport 9.2 Deep-drilling the continental crust......Page 326 10 Tectonics, Earthquakes, and Volcanism......Page 348 GEOSYSTEMSnow The San Jacinto Fault Connection......Page 349 Earth’s Surface Relief......Page 350 CRITICALthinking 10.1 Comparing Topographic Regions at Different Scales......Page 353 Crustal Deformation......Page 355 Orogenesis (Mountain Building)......Page 362 Earthquakes......Page 366 Volcanism......Page 373 Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 382 focusstudy 10.1 Natural Hazards......Page 370 GEOsystems in action 10: MOUNTAIN BUILDING......Page 364 CRITICALthinking 10.2 Ocean-Floor Tectonics Tour......Page 380 THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Tectonics......Page 381 GEOReport 10.1 Mount Everest measured by GPS......Page 352 GEOReport 10.2 Ongoing earthquake activity in Sumatra, Indonesia......Page 368 GEOReport 10.3 Large earthquakes affect Earth’s axial tilt......Page 372 GEOReport 10.4 Mount Ontake’s deadly 2014 eruption in Japan......Page 376 11 Weathering, Karst Landscapes, and Mass Movement......Page 384 GEOSYSTEMSnow The Oso, Washington, Landslide......Page 385 Landmass Denudation......Page 386 CRITICALthinking 11.1 Find a Slope; Apply the Concepts......Page 390 GEOReport 11.1 Weathering on bridges in Central Park, NYC......Page 395 Mass-Movement Processes......Page 398 Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 408 CRITICALthinking 11.2 Compare Two Mass-Movement Events......Page 404 GEOsystems in action 11: HILLSLOPES AS OPEN SYSTEMS......Page 388 THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Weathering, Karst, and Hillslopes......Page 407 GEOReport 11.2 Sinkholes caused by human activities......Page 397 GEOReport 11.3 Rockfalls in Yosemite......Page 402 VISUALanalysis 11 Processes at Work on a Sandstone Cathedral......Page 406 12 River Systems......Page 410 GEOSYSTEMSnow Proposed Dams On the Nu River China......Page 411 Drainage Basins and Drainage Patterns......Page 412 Basic Fluvial Concepts......Page 417 Fluvial Processes and Landforms......Page 419 GEOReport 12.2 America’s levees......Page 435 Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 439 focusstudy 12.1 Environmental Restoration......Page 426 GEOsystems in action 12: MEANDERING STREAMS......Page 424 CRITICALthinking 12.1 Locate Your Drainage Basin......Page 414 CRITICALthinking 12.2 Identifying Drainage Patterns......Page 416 THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Rivers, Floodplains, and Deltas......Page 438 GEOReport 12.1 The disappearing Nile River delta......Page 433 GEOReport 12.3 Another measure of statistical flood probability......Page 437 VISUALanalysis 12 Levee Breaks in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina......Page 441 13 Oceans, Coastal Systems, and Wind Processes......Page 442 GEOSYSTEMSnow Sand Dunes Protect Coastlines During Hurricane Sandy......Page 443 Global Oceans and Seas......Page 444 Coastal System Components......Page 447 CRITICALthinking 13.1 Thinking Through a Rising Sea Level......Page 449 Coastal System Outputs......Page 455 Wind Processes......Page 466 Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 473 focusstudy 13.1 Natural Hazards......Page 456 GEOsystems in action 13: WIND-BLOWN DUNE FORMS......Page 471 CRITICALthinking 13.2 Examining Hard versus Soft Shoreline Protection......Page 461 CRITICALthinking 13.3 The Nearest Eolian Features......Page 470 THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Oceans, Coasts, and Dunes......Page 472 GEOReport 13.1 The Mediterranean Sea is getting saltier......Page 446 GEOReport 13.2 Surprise waves flood a cruise ship......Page 453 GEOReport 13.3 Ocean acidification impacts corals......Page 465 GEOReport 13.4 Human activities disturb eolian landforms......Page 468 VISUALanalysis 13 Coastal Processes and Barrier Islands......Page 475 14 Glacial and Periglacial Landscapes......Page 476 GEOSYSTEMSnow Tidewater Glaciers and Ice Shelves Give Way to Warming......Page 477 Snow into ice—The Basis of Glaciers......Page 478 Types of Glaciers......Page 479 Glacial Processes......Page 481 Glacial Landforms......Page 486 Periglacial Landscapes......Page 492 The Pleistocene Epoch......Page 498 CRITICALthinking 14.2 A Sample of Life at the Polar Station......Page 501 Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 505 focusstudy 14.1 Climate Change......Page 494 GEOsystems in action 14: GLACIERS AS DYNAMIC SYSTEMS......Page 482 CRITICALthinking 14.1 Looking for Glacial Features......Page 488 THEhumanDENOMINATOR: The Cryosphere......Page 504 GEOReport 14.1 Greenland Ice Sheet melting......Page 485 GEOReport 14.2 Feedback loops from fossil-fuel exploration to permafrost thawing......Page 496 GEOReport 14.3 Glacial ice might protect underlying mountains......Page 502 VISUALanalysis 14 Glacial Processes and Landforms......Page 507 PART IV: Soils, Ecosystems, and Biomes......Page 508 15 The Geography of Soils......Page 510 GEOSYSTEMSnow Desertification: Declining Soils in Earth’s Drylands......Page 511 Soil Development and Soil Profiles......Page 512 Human Impacts on Soils......Page 520 CRITICALthinking 15.1 Soil Losses—What to Do?......Page 523 Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 538 focusstudy 15.1 Pollution......Page 528 GEOsystems in action 15: BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY IN SOILS......Page 519 GEOReport 15.4 Biological soil crusts......Page 535 THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Soils and Land Use......Page 537 GEOReport 15.1 Soil compaction—causes and effects......Page 517 GEOReport 15.2 Slipping through our fingers......Page 521 GEOReport 15.3 Overgrazing on Argentina’s grasslands......Page 522 GEOReport 15.5 Huge tropical peat bog discovered in Africa......Page 536 16 Ecosystem Essentials......Page 540 GEOSYSTEMSnow Species’ Distributions Shift with Climate Change......Page 541 Energy Flows and Nutrient Cycles......Page 542 Communities and Species Distributions......Page 553 Biodiversity, Evolution, and Ecosystem Stability......Page 559 Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 566 focusstudy 16.1 Natural Hazards......Page 558 GEOsystems in action 16: COASTAL DEAD ZONES......Page 549 GEOReport 16.1 Sea turtles navigate using Earth’s magnetic field......Page 554 CRITICALthinking 16.2 Observe Ecosystem Disturbanceand Recovery......Page 564 THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Ecosystems and Biodiversity......Page 565 GEOReport 16.2 Another take on lake–bog succession......Page 560 GEOReport 16.3 Will species adapt to climate change?......Page 563 17 Terrestrial Biomes......Page 568 GEOSYSTEMSnow Invasive Species Arrive at Tristan da Cunha......Page 569 GEOReport 17.1 A new look at Wallace’s zoogeographic regions......Page 570 Conservation Biogeography......Page 572 Earth’s Terrestrial Biomes......Page 575 Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 592 focusstudy 17.1 Environmental Restoration......Page 576 GEOsystems in action 17: TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS AND AMAZON DEFORESTATION......Page 582 CRITICALthinking 17.1 Reality Check......Page 578 CRITICALthinking 17.2 Tropical Forests: A Global or Local Resource?......Page 580 CRITICALthinking 17.3 A Shifting-Climate Hypothetical......Page 589 THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Anthropogenic Biomes......Page 591 GEOReport 17.2 Black-footed ferrets return from the edge of extinction......Page 587 GEOReport 17.3 Plant communities survive under glacial ice......Page 588 GEOReport 17.4 Aquatic biomes and marine ecosystem management......Page 590 VISUALanalysis 17 Seasonal Changes......Page 593 Appendix A: Maps in This Text and Topgraphic Maps......Page 594 Appendix B: The Köppen Climate Classification System......Page 599 Appendix C: Common Conversions......Page 602 A......Page 604 B......Page 605 C......Page 606 D......Page 608 E......Page 609 F......Page 610 G......Page 611 H......Page 612 I......Page 613 L......Page 614 M......Page 615 N......Page 616 P......Page 617 R......Page 618 S......Page 619 T......Page 622 W......Page 623 Z......Page 624 Human Denominator & Geosystems in Action Credits......Page 625 A......Page 626 B......Page 628 C......Page 629 D......Page 631 E......Page 633 F......Page 634 G......Page 635 H......Page 637 K......Page 638 L......Page 639 M......Page 640 N......Page 641 O......Page 642 P......Page 643 R......Page 644 S......Page 645 T......Page 649 U......Page 650 W......Page 651 Z......Page 652