Climate Changes Mitigation and Sustainable Bioenergy Harvest Through Animal Waste: Sustainable Environmental Implications of Animal Waste

Description

The valuable characteristics of animal waste materials in terms of climatic change impact and bioenergy production are discussed in this book. Reutilization of such wastes for bioenergy harvest is the prime focus; the great need for future animal waste recycling is also depicted. Major topics discussed are types of livestock waste – poultry and dairy, methods and management of waste utilization and storage, application of animal waste in bioenergy production, economics of waste utilization, novel disposable techniques, circular bioeconomy, pollution, and water quality. Furthermore, utilization of animal waste for resource conservation and environmental protection is discussed, such as potential materials for green biochemicals. Resource recovery can, therefore, forestall the shortage of natural resources and, at the same time, can greatly reduce waste-disposal problems and energy crises. Many alternatives to waste disposal, either currently available or under study, focus on the recovery of material or energy. In a world of diminishing resources and increasing needs, each opportunity for the recycling of animal waste materials has been examined. This book significantly contributes toward climate change mitigation through better environmental solutions. A better understanding of animal waste recycling to mitigate climate changes has been portrayed in order to generate discussions among researchers and administrators. Environmental implications of animal waste are of prime importance in climate change scenario. Such wastes also harbor zoonotic pathogens that are transported in the environment. Finally, it has been tried out to collect ideas and experience in multiple aspects of animal waste management for climate change mitigation and bioenergy harvest.   Preface Contents 1 Animal Waste: An Environmentally Sustainable Management Approach 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Animal Waste 1.2.1 What Are Animal Wastes? 1.2.2 Characteristics and Composition of Animal Waste 1.3 Present-Day Environmental Problems 1.3.1 Soil Pollution 1.3.2 Water Pollution 1.3.3 Air Pollution 1.4 Brief Background of Animal Waste Treatment Systems 1.5 Microorganisms in Animal Waste Recycle 1.5.1 Microbes Found in Animal Waste 1.5.2 Nitrogen Cycle and Microorganisms 1.5.3 Systems of the Manure Recycle and Treatment 1.5.4 Microbial Flora of Animal Faeces After Excretion 1.5.5 Microorganisms and Their Function in the Animal Waste Lagoon 1.5.6 Microorganisms in the Composting Process 1.6 The Microbial Community Profiles of Different Animal Waste 1.6.1 Cow Waste 1.6.2 Poultry Waste 1.6.3 Swine Waste 1.6.4 Sheep Waste 1.6.5 Goat Waste 1.7 Composting Process 1.7.1 Types of Composting 1.7.2 Factors Affecting the Animal Waste Composting Process 1.8 Animal Waste Biodegradation 1.8.1 Bacterial Degradation Potential 1.8.2 Degradation by Plant and Animal Feed-Associated Bacteria 1.8.3 Microfungal and Mycorrhizal Degradation 1.8.4 Degradation by Algae 1.9 Recovery of Nutrients and Energy from Animal Waste 1.9.1 Recovery of Energy from Animal Waste 1.9.2 Animal Waste as a Source of Animal Feeds 1.10 Conclusion References 2 Slaughter Wastes-A Curse or Blessing: An Appraisal 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Operations During Slaughterhouse and Waste Production on Each Step 2.3 Types of Waste and Their Handling 2.3.1 Solid Waste Process 2.4 Usage of Slaughterhouse Waste 2.4.1 Blood as a Resource of Bioactive Compounds 2.4.2 Composting 2.4.3 Anaerobic Digestion 2.4.4 Rendering 2.4.5 Incineration 2.4.6 Biodiesel Production 2.4.7 Wood Adhesives 2.4.8 Agriculture Water 2.5 Environmental Challenges Related to Slaughterhouse Waste 2.5.1 Slaughterhouse Wastewater 2.5.2 Solid Waste 2.5.3 Air Pollution 2.6 Measures Proposed to Improve the Slaughterhouse Wastewater Management 2.6.1 Preliminary Treatment 2.6.2 Physicochemical Treatment 2.6.3 Biological Treatment 2.6.4 Advanced Oxidation Processes 2.6.5 Treatment System Maximum Removal Efficiency 2.7 Conclusion References 3 Sustainable Recycling of Manure and Reuse to Mitigate Climate Change 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Historical Background 3.3 Accommodations and Activity Area 3.3.1 Cattle 3.3.2 Poultry 3.4 Integrated Manufacturing Technology 3.5 Types of Animal Manure 3.6 Livestock Manure Attributes 3.6.1 Particle Size 3.7 Technologies for Animal Waste Treatment 3.7.1 Compaction 3.7.2 Aerobic Degradation 3.7.3 Composting 3.7.4 Mechanism of Vermicomposting 3.7.5 Anaerobic Digestion 3.8 Animal Manure Management Systems 3.9 Benefits of Manure Application 3.9.1 Available Phosphorus 3.9.2 Crops Response to Manure 3.9.3 Manure Maintains Soil pH 3.9.4 Manure Enhance Soil Organic Matter 3.9.5 Manure Improves Physical Soil Properties 3.9.6 Manure Pesticide Vulnerability 3.10 Principles Associated with Manure Management 3.11 Conclusion References 4 Anaerobic Digestion for Bioenergy Production Using Solid Animal Waste: New Avenues 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Anaerobic Digestion 4.1.2 Utilization of Animal Wastes for Bioenergy Production 4.1.3 Biogas 4.1.4 Uses of Biogas 4.2 Feedstocks for Anaerobic Digestion 4.2.1 Types of Feedstocks 4.2.2 Feedstock for Biomass 4.2.3 Feedstock for Biofuel 4.2.4 Chemical Feedstock 4.3 Best Feedstock for Anaerobic Digestion 4.3.1 Biodegradable Biomass Materials 4.4 Benefits of Anaerobic Digestion 4.4.1 Environmental Benefits 4.4.2 Economic Benefits 4.5 Recent Trends in Anaerobic Digestion Technology 4.5.1 Development of Anaerobic Digestion Units 4.6 Anaerobic Digestion System and Its Economic Analysis 4.6.1 Small to Large-Scale Digestion System 4.7 Anaerobic Digestion System and Economic Impact 4.7.1 Small-Scale Anaerobic Digestion System and Its Economic Benefits 4.7.2 Large-Scale Anaerobic Digestion System and Its Economic Benefits 4.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects References 5 Techniques and Strategies for Bioenergy Production from Manure 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Energy Crisis 5.1.2 How Much Energy is Generated from Biowaste 5.1.3 Manure 5.1.4 Chemical Composition of Manure 5.1.5 How Much Manure Produced Annually? 5.2 Manure Pretreatment 5.2.1 Chemical 5.2.2 Physical 5.2.3 Mechanical 5.2.4 Heat 5.2.5 Biological 5.3 Techniques to Convert Manure into Bioenergy 5.3.1 Thermochemical Processes 5.3.2 Combustion 5.3.3 Gasification 5.3.4 Pyrolysis 5.3.5 Incineration 5.3.6 Carbonization 5.4 Biochemical Processes 5.4.1 Fermentation 5.4.2 Transesterification 5.4.3 Anaerobic Digestion 5.4.4 Microbial Fuel Cell 5.4.5 Landfill 5.5 Bioreactor Design 5.5.1 Gasifier Reactor Design 5.5.2 Anaerobic Digester Design 5.6 Environmental Impacts 5.7 Status, Challenges, and Perspective of Biowaste to Bioenergy Technology 5.8 Policy and Government Incentives 5.9 Conclusion References 6 Utilization of Waste Animal Fat for Sustainable Biodiesel Production 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Environment and Climate Change 6.2.1 State of Environmental Air 6.2.2 Petro-Fuel Emissions—Health Hazards 6.3 Potential Feedstock—Biodiesel Achievement in Pakistan 6.3.1 Edible Vegetable Oils 6.3.2 Non-edible Vegetable Oils 6.3.3 Waste Cooking Oil 6.3.4 Microalgae 6.3.5 Leather Industry Wastes 6.3.6 Animal Fats 6.4 Biodiesel Production Methods Flowchart 6.5 Biodiesel Production Process 6.5.1 Pre-treatment Process 6.5.2 Esterification Process 6.5.3 Transesterification Process 6.5.4 Post-treatment Process 6.6 Effects of Additives on the Quality of Biodiesel 6.7 Current Challenges of Biodiesel Industry 6.8 Conclusion References 7 Biogas from Manure: The Future of Renewable Natural Gas and Its Implications 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Feedstocks Used for Biogas Production 7.2.1 Sources of Animal Manure 7.2.2 Factors Influencing the Amount of Manure Produced 7.2.3 Characteristics and Composition of Animal Manure 7.2.4 Biogas Digester Efficacy and Manure Feedstocks 7.3 Biogas Production Processes 7.3.1 Anaerobic Fermentation: A Biochemical Process 7.4 Co-Digestion and Biogas Potential Enhancement 7.4.1 Co-Digestion of Animal Manure with Other Feedstocks 7.4.2 Boosting of Biogas Production Potential 7.5 Full-Scale Biogas Digester Microbial Composition 7.5.1 Biologically Based Pretreatment of Manure 7.5.2 Bacteria in Biogas Digester 7.5.3 Archaea in Biogas Digester 7.5.4 Fungi in Biogas Digester 7.5.5 Microbial Enzyme in Biogas Digester 7.6 Chemical and Physical Properties of Biogas 7.7 Factors and Parameters that Can Influence Biogas Production from Manure 7.7.1 Temperature 7.7.2 The pH Values 7.7.3 The Nutrients and Content of Manure 7.7.4 Nitrogen Inhibition and Carbon/Nitrogen (C/N) Ratio 7.7.5 Hydrogen Sulfide Concentration 7.7.6 Substrate Particle Size and Agitation 7.7.7 Retention Time (Flow-Through Time) 7.8 Biogas Applications 7.8.1 Electricity Generation 7.8.2 Heat or Steam Generation 7.8.3 Co-Generation or Combined Heat and Power Generation 7.8.4 Biomethane Production 7.8.5 Transportation Fuel 7.8.6 Biohydrogen Production 7.8.7 Fuel Cells 7.9 Biogas Development Across the Globe 7.9.1 Africa 7.9.2 Asia 7.9.3 Europe 7.9.4 South and North America 7.10 Recent Progress in Biogas Production 7.10.1 Choice of Biomass and Use of Additives 7.10.2 Improvement in Digester Designs 7.10.3 Meta-Omics Tool 7.10.4 Improved Anaerobic Digestion Techniques 7.11 Recent Methods Use for Biogas Upgradation 7.11.1 What is Biogas Upgradation? 7.11.2 Biogas Upgradation Technologies 7.12 Biogas Technologies: Their Benefits and Drawbacks 7.12.1 Benefits of Biogas Technologies 7.12.2 Limitations of Biogas Technology 7.13 Conclusions References 8 Greenhouse Gases Emissions Assessments and Mitigation Opportunities from Animal Manure Processing 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Emission of Methane and Nitrous Oxide from Livestock Manure 8.1.2 Methanogenesis 8.1.3 Emissions of Nitrous Oxide (N2O) by Nitrification and Denitrification 8.2 Manure Management and Emission of Greenhouse Gases 8.2.1 Emission of N2O from Animal Yards 8.2.2 Emission of Nitrous Oxide During Manure Storage and Treatment 8.2.3 Emission of Nitrous Oxide (N2O) from Manure Spreading 8.2.4 Type of Manure 8.2.5 Type of Soil 8.2.6 Season of Manure Application 8.2.7 Rate of Manure Application in Fields 8.3 Emission of Methane from Manure Management 8.3.1 Emission of CH4 from Animal Houses 8.3.2 Emission of CH4 from Storage 8.3.3 Emission of CH4 by Manure Spreading 8.4 GHGs Mitigation Opportunities from Animal Manure Processing 8.4.1 Management of Animals and Their Housing 8.4.2 Animals Grazing Practices 8.4.3 Process of Biofiltration 8.4.4 Amelioration of GHGs from Manure Storage and Treatment 8.4.5 Different Types of Covers for Manure Storage 8.4.6 Mitigation by the Process of Anaerobic Digestion 8.4.7 Acidification of Manure 8.4.8 Composting 8.5 Conclusions References 9 Lifecycle and Risk Assessment of Animal Manure Utilization 9.1 Introduction 9.2 History 9.3 Composition of Animal Manure 9.3.1 Organic Matter 9.3.2 Fibers 9.3.3 Nitrogen Content 9.3.4 Phosphorus and Potassium Contents 9.3.5 Micronutrients Content 9.3.6 Energy 9.4 Antibiotic Use in Animal Farms 9.5 The Spread of Manure-Born Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment 9.6 Issues Associated with Manure 9.6.1 Storage 9.6.2 Gases Produced by Manure and Their Effects 9.7 Introduction of Heavy Metals in Soil 9.8 Antibiotic Resistance Bacteria in Manure 9.9 Pathogens Present in Manure 9.10 Some Important Bacteria Present in Manure and Their Pathogenicity 9.10.1 Escherichia coli 9.10.2 Salmonella spp. 9.10.3 Campylobacter spp. 9.10.4 Yersinia enterocolitica 9.10.5 Listeria monocytogenes 9.10.6 Enterococcus Species 9.10.7 Mycobacterium Species 9.11 Control and Prevention of Pathogens in Animal Manure 9.12 Chemical Methods 9.12.1 Use of Lime Substances 9.12.2 Hydrogen Peroxide 9.13 Physical Methods 9.13.1 Heating 9.13.2 Drying 9.13.3 Irradiation 9.14 Biological Methods 9.14.1 Anaerobic Storage of Manure 9.14.2 Composting 9.14.3 Anaerobic Digestion 9.15 Conclusion 9.16 Future Recommendations References 10 Utilization of Animal Wastes to Mitigate the Climate Changes 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Classification of Animal By-Products 10.2.1 List of Animal By-Products 10.2.2 By-Products to Expensive Industrial Products 10.3 Utilization of Poultry Wastes 10.3.1 Biogas Production from Poultry Waste 10.3.2 Birds Feathers and Their Utilization 10.4 Utilization of Wastes of Slaughter Animals 10.4.1 Utilization of Animal Blood 10.4.2 Blood Usage in Medicine and Pharmaceuticals 10.4.3 Utilization of Hides and Skins 10.4.4 Utilization of Waste as Biofuel 10.4.5 Organ and Gland Applications in Medicine and Pharmaceuticals 10.5 Utilization of Livestock Animal Wastes 10.5.1 Manure Utilization on Crops 10.5.2 Transesterification of a Lipid Component in Livestock Waste to Produce Biodiesel 10.6 Conclusion References 11 Circular Bioeconomy of Animal Wastes 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Bioeconomy, Bio-Based Economy, Green Economy, and Circular Economy 11.3 Approaches to Waste Management and Value-Addition in Livestock Industries 11.4 Waste Valorization Technologies and Markets 11.5 Utilization of Waste Materials from Meat 11.5.1 Meat Industry 11.6 Recovery of Nutrients from Animal Wastes 11.7 Producing Nutritionally Advanced Feeds 11.8 Waste to New Materials 11.8.1 Processing of Keratin Wastes 11.9 Bioprocesses with Waste For Bio-Lipids’ Synthesis 11.10 Reutilization of Aquaculture Wastes 11.11 Fishery Waste and Fishery By-Products in Bangladesh 11.12 Fishery Waste Utilization: Opportunities and Challenges to Sustainable Use 11.13 Fisheries and Aquaculture 11.14 Animal Manures 11.14.1 Nutrients in Manure (Animal Wastes) 11.15 Animal-Based Ingredients and By-Products 11.16 Conclusion References 12 Sustainable Solutions to Animal Waste: Climate Change Mitigation and Bioproduct Harvest 12.1 Introduction 12.1.1 Concept of Sustainability 12.1.2 Sustainable Utilization of Livestock Waste 12.2 Biogas Production from Animal Waste 12.2.1 Composition of Biogas 12.2.2 Raw Material 12.2.3 Biochemical Reactions and Microbiology of Anaerobic Digestion Involved in Biogas Production 12.2.4 Environmental Requirements for Anaerobic Digestion 12.2.5 Advantages of Biogas Technology 12.3 Composting 12.3.1 Process 12.3.2 Environmental Requirements for Composting 12.3.3 Benefits 12.4 Vermicomposting 12.4.1 Vermicomposting Technique 12.4.2 Process 12.4.3 Factors Governing Vermicomposting 12.4.4 Advantages 12.5 Algae Production 12.5.1 Algal Pond Systems 12.6 Manure Management by Fish Cultivation 12.7 Conclusion References 13 Application of Farmyard Manure in Sustainable Utilization of Animal Wastes to Reclaim Salt Degraded Lands 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Significance of Animal Wastes 13.1.2 Distribution of Animals 13.1.3 Different Types of Animal Wastes 13.2 Use of Unprocessed Animal Wastes as Soil Amendments 13.2.1 Use of Farmyard Manure as Soil Amendment 13.2.2 Use of Poultry Manure as Soil Amendment 13.2.3 Use of Slurry in Agriculture 13.2.4 Soil Characteristics 13.2.5 Limitations of Using Unprocessed Organic Amendments 13.3 Use of Animal Wastes as Biochar 13.3.1 Origin and Production Process 13.3.2 Significance of Biochar 13.3.3 Feedstock Material 13.3.4 Properties of Biochar 13.3.5 Biochar and Salinity 13.3.6 Farmyard Manure Biochar 13.4 Conclusion References 14 Applications of Low-Capital-Cost Technologies for Bioconversion of Slaughter Wastes 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Use of Technologies in Disposal of Waste Materials 14.3 Anaerobic Digestion (AD) and Alkaline Hydrolysis (AH) 14.4 Blood 14.5 Waste Blood’s Composition 14.6 Protein Content of the Blood 14.7 Blood Mineral Content 14.8 Methods for Degrading Proteins 14.9 Microbiology 14.10 Problems Associated with Anaerobic Digestion of Livestock Blood 14.11 Strategies for Anaerobic Digestion of Blood 14.12 Strategies to Control NH3 Inhibition 14.13 Conclusion References 15 Role of Microbes in Sustainable Utilization of Animal Wastes 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Waste 15.2.1 Classification of Wastes 15.2.2 Waste Management 15.3 Microbes in Waste Management 15.4 Anaerobic Digestion of Animal Wastes in Bio-Digesters 15.5 Anaerobic Digestion-Related Microbial Colonies 15.5.1 Acidogens 15.5.2 Syntrophic Acetogens 15.5.3 Methanogens 15.6 Factors Affecting Anaerobic Digestion of Animal Manure 15.6.1 Temperature 15.6.2 pH and Alkalinity 15.6.3 Ammonia 15.6.4 Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) and Organic Loading Rate (OLR) 15.6.5 Heavy Metals and Features of Substrate 15.6.6 Blending and Mixing of Animal Wastes with Bacteria 15.7 Composting 15.7.1 Factors Influencing the Rate of Composting 15.8 Role of Microbes in Biodegradation of Plastic 15.9 Bioremediation 15.9.1 In-Situ Bioremediation 15.9.2 Ex-Situ Bioremediation 15.10 Conclusions References 16 Biofertiliser from Animal Wastes 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Biofertiliser from Animal Wastes 16.2.1 Vermicompost 16.2.2 Digestate Biofertiliser 16.2.3 Poultry Waste-Based Biofertiliser 16.3 Manure Management 16.4 Importance of Livestock Waste Management 16.4.1 Traditional Method of Livestock Waste Management 16.4.2 Advance Methods of Livestock Waste Management 16.5 Value-Added Products from Animal Waste 16.6 Application of Biofertilisers in Agriculture Practices 16.7 Animal Waste-Based Biofertilisers in Aquaculture 16.7.1 Pond Water for Irrigation 16.8 Factors Affecting the Quantity and Quality of Animal Manure 16.9 Environment and Economic Significance of Animal-Based Biofertilisers 16.10 Animal-Based Biofertilisers and Sustainable Development Goals 16.11 Conclusions References 17 Valorization of Animal Waste for the Production of Sustainable Bioenergy 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Effects of Animal Wastes 17.3 Protein from Animal Source 17.3.1 Source of Collagen 17.3.2 Source of Keratin 17.3.3 Source of Gelatin 17.4 Bioenergy Generation from Animal Wastes 17.4.1 Biogas Production via Animal Waste 17.4.2 Biodiesel from Animal Fat Waste (AFW) 17.4.3 Bioelectricity from Animal Waste 17.5 Compost 17.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References 18 Green Biochemicals from Manure 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Historical Background 18.3 Manure 18.3.1 Value of Manure 18.3.2 Manure Composition 18.3.3 Storage and Handling 18.3.4 Soil Analysis and Nutrient Recommendation 18.3.5 Additional Nutrition Sources 18.4 Handling Characteristics of Manure 18.5 Organic Manure 18.5.1 Bulky Organic Manures 18.5.2 Effect of Bulky Organic Manures on Soil 18.5.3 Farmyard Manure (FYM) 18.5.4 Organic Manure Transformation Reactions in Soils 18.6 Various Sources of Plant Nutrients 18.6.1 Soil Sources 18.6.2 Mineral Fertilizers 18.6.3 Organic Sources 18.7 Organic Cycling 18.7.1 Green Manuring 18.8 Biological Sources 18.8.1 Rhizobium Inoculants 18.8.2 Azotobacter Inoculants 18.8.3 Azospirillum Inoculants 18.8.4 Blue-Green Algae Inoculants 18.8.5 Azolla 18.8.6 Phosphatic Biofertilizer 18.9 Chemical Fertilizers 18.9.1 Nitrogen Fertilizer 18.9.2 Commercial Nitrogenous Fertilizer 18.10 Conclusion References 19 Current Trends and Prospects of Transforming Animal Waste into Food 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Extraction of Protein from Animal Waste 19.2.1 Keratin Pretreatment and Extraction 19.2.2 Gelatin and Collagen Extraction 19.3 Application of Animal Waste 19.3.1 Collagen as Food Additive 19.3.2 Collagen in Beverages 19.3.3 Gelatin for Food Industry 19.3.4 Keratin in Feedstock 19.3.5 Applications of Fish Collagen in Drug Delivery 19.3.6 Food Applications of Bone Meal 19.4 Food Applications of Fish Meal 19.5 Application of Animal Wastes in Food Packaging 19.5.1 Biodegradable Packaging Materials 19.5.2 Development of Packaging Films from Animals’ Proteins 19.5.3 Keratin Films 19.5.4 Myofibrillar Proteins 19.5.5 Blood Proteins 19.5.6 Regulatory Status for Animal Waste Based Packaging Material 19.6 Religious and Ethical Concerns Related to Food Application of Animal Wastes 19.6.1 Religious Concerns 19.6.2 Ethical Concerns 19.7 Future Prospects 19.8 Conclusion References 20 Manure-Associated Veterinary Antibiotics; Ecological Consequences and Mitigation Strategies 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Consumption Trend of Veterinary Antibiotics in Livestock Sector 20.3 Excretion of Veterinary Antibiotics in Animal Manure 20.4 Environmental Transfer of Manure-Associated Veterinary Antibiotics 20.5 Fate of Residual Veterinary Antibiotics in Soil 20.5.1 Adsorption of Veterinary Antibiotics to Soil 20.5.2 Chemical Modification of Manure-Associated Antibiotics 20.5.3 Colloid-Mediated Transfer, Leaching and Runoff of Veterinary Antibiotics 20.6 Uptake and Deposition of Residual Veterinary Antibiotics by Plants 20.7 Ecological Impact of Manure-Derived Veterinary Antibiotics 20.8 Mitigation Strategies for Manure-Associated Veterinary Antibiotics 20.9 Conclusions and Future Considerations References