Chemical Process Technology

Description

Chemical Process Technology covers various inorganic and organic chemical industries, including fertilizers, petroleum and petrochemicals, pulp and paper, cement, glass and refractory materials, paints and pharmaceutical and metallurgical industries. Chemical industry is one of the important sectors of economy which plays a vital role in the industrialization and urbanization, meeting basic needs of mankind through supplying fertilizers, gases, caustics and chlorine, soaps and detergents, synthetic fiber, synthetic rubber, polymers, sugars and alcohols, paper dyes and intermediates, explosives, agrochemicals, dyes and intermediates, paints, etc. To remain competitive, the chemical industry has to look at various cost-cutting and conservation measures including those for raw materials, energy and other utilities. The various topics concerning specific energy consumption, corrosion, environment and safety have also been widely covered in the book. This makes an ideal textbook for undergraduate and postgraduate students of chemical engineering as well postgraduate courses in chemistry. Cover Half Title Chemical Process Technology Copyright Dedication Foreword Preface Acknowledgments Contents Abbreviations 1. Chemical Process Industries 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Chemical industry and technological development 1.3 Structure of chemical industry 1.4 Global and Indian chemical industries 1.5 Changing scenario in chemical process industry 1.6 Chemical feedstocks 1.7 Characteristics of the Indian chemical industry 1.7.1 Indian chemical industry weaknesses 1.7.2 Typical issues for chemical industries Bibliography 2. Basic Principles of Chemical Processes and Unit Operations in Chemical Industries Introduction 2.1 Heat transfer 2.2 Thermodynamics 2.3 Mass transfer 2.4 Reaction engineering 2.5 Fluid mechanics 2.6 Unit processes and unit operations in chemical process technology Bibliography 3. Industrial Gases 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Profile of global and Indian gas company 3.3 Types of industrial gases 3.4 Oxygen and nitrogen 3.5 Methane and synthesis gas derivatives 3.6 Hydrogen 3.7 Acetylene (C2H2) 3.8 Carbon dioxide Bibliography 4. Chlor-caustic and Soda Ash Industry 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Profile of chlor-alkali industry (Gujarat) 4.3 Issues and challenges before chlor-caustic industry 4.4 Sea water 4.5 Common salt 4.5.1 Processes for Salt Manufacture 4.5.2 Factors Affecting Solar Evaporation 4.5.3 Causes Which Influence the Rate of Evaporation of Water from Open Surfaces 4.5.4 Design Consideration of Solar Salt Works 4.5.5 Sea Chemicals 4.6 Common terms used in electrolytic process 4.7 Chlor-caustic production 4.7.1 Brine Purification 4.7.2 Diaphragm Cell 4.7.3 Mercury Cell 4.7.4 Membrane Cell Process 4.8 Hydrochloric acid 4.9 Polyaluminum chloride 4.9.1 Manufacturing Process 4.10 Chlorosulfonic acid 4.11 Stable bleaching powder 4.12 Soda Ash 4.12.1 Solvay Process 4.12.2 Modified Solvay Process (Dual Process) Bibliography 5. Sulfur and Sulfuric Acid 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Sulfuric acid 5.2.1 Uses of Sulfuric Acid 5.2.2 Sulfuric Acid Manufacture 5.2.3 Technological Development of Sulfuric Acid 5.2.4 Sulfuric Acid by Double Contact Double Absorption (DCDA) System Using Sulfur as Raw Material 5.2.5 Sulfuric Acid from Pyrite Roaster Gases 5.3 Oleum 5.4 Alum Bibliography 6. Fertilizer Industry 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Elements Necessary for Plant Growth 6.1.2 Structure of Fertilizer Industry 6.2 Profile of Fertilizer Industry 6.2.1 Global Fertilizer Industry 6.2.2 Indian Fertilizer Industry Bibliography 7. Nitrogenous Fertilizer and Nitric Acid 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Ammonia Production 7.1.2 Characteristics of Ammonia 7.1.3 Raw Materials for Ammonia 7.1.4 Process Technology for the Manufacture of Ammonia 7.1.5 Ammonia Manufacture by Steam Reforming Process 7.2 Urea (NH2CONH2) 7.3 Nitric Acid 7.3.1 Uses of Nitric Acid 7.3.2 Nitric Acid Process Technology 7.4 Ammonium Nitrate 7.4.1 Process Technology 7.5 Calcium Ammonium Nitrate 7.5.1 Process Technology 7.6 Ammonium Sulfate 7.6.1 Process Technology 7.7 Ammonium Sulfate from Gypsum 7.7.1 Ammonium Sulfate as By-product from Caprolactam Plant 7.8 Ammonium Chloride 7.8.1 Ammonium Chloride Direct Neutralization 7.8.2 Ammonium Chloride by Modified Solvay Process Bibliography 8. Phosphorus, Phosphatic, Potassium and Mixed Fertilizers 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Phosphorus 8.3 Phosphorus Compounds 8.4 Phosphatic Fertilizer 8.5 Phosphoric Acid 8.5.1 Wet Phosphoric Acid 8.5.2 Electric Furnace Acid 8.5.3 Technological Development in Phosphoric Acid Plant 8.6 Single Superphosphate 8.7 Triple Superphosphate 8.7.1 Process 8.7.2 Potassic Fertilizer and Mixed Fertilizers 8.8 Ammonium Phosphate 8.8.1 Urea Ammonium Phosphate 8.8.2 Diammonium Phosphate 8.8.3 Ammonium Phosphate Sulfate 8.9 Nitrophosphate Bibliography 9. Cement and Lime Industries 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Profile of Cement Industry 9.3 Process Technology 9.4 Process Technology of Dry Process of Portland Cement Manufacture 9.5 Raw Material Requirement 9.6 Process Technology for Portland Slag Cement (PSC) 9.7 Technological Developments in Cement Plant 9.8 Different Types of Portland Cement 9.8.1 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) 9.8.2 Oil Well Portland Cement 9.8.3 Waterproof Portland Cement 9.8.4 Sulfate-resisting Portland Cement 9.8.5 High Alumina Cement 9.8.6 Pozzuolana Cement 9.8.7 Special or Corrosion Resistance 9.8.8 White Cement 9.8.9 Blended Cements 9.9 Stepwise Environmental Impact Due to Dry Process for Cement Manufacture 9.10 Limestone and Lime 9.10.1 Uses of Lime 9.10.2 Development in Lime Processing Equipments Bibliography 10. Glass and Refractories Glass 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Status of Glass Industry 10.3 Developments in Glass Industries 10.4 Glass Raw Material and Process Technology 10.4.1 Raw Materials 10.4.2 Recycling of Glass 10.4.3 Fining and Fluxing Agents 10.4.4 Process Technology of Glass Manufacture 10.5 Types of Glasses 10.5.1 Soda Lime Glass 10.5.2 Borosilicate Glass 10.5.3 Lead Glass 10.5.4 Silica Glass 10.5.5 Laminated Glass 10.5.6 Wired Glass 10.5.7 Coated Glass 10.5.8 Fiber Glass 10.5.9 Rolled Glass Process 10.5.10 Float Glass Process 10.5.11 Glass Lined Steel 10.5.12 Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) 10.6 Refractory in Glass Industries Refractories 10.7 Introduction 10.7.1 Indian Refractory Industry 10.7.2 Classification 10.7.3 Important Refractory Materials 10.7.4 Application of Refractory in Various Industries Bibliography 11. Oil and Fats 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Profile of Edible Oil Industry 11.3 Classifcation of Oil and Fats 11.3.1 Based on Origin 11.3.2 Based on Iodine Value 11.3.3 Based on Edible Nature 11.4 Characterization of Oil and Fats 11.5 Processing of Oil and Fats 11.6 Processing of Soybean Oil 11.7 Refining of Oil 11.8 Hydrogenation of Oils Bibliography 12. Explosives and Miscellaneous Chemicals 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Profile of Indian Explosive Industry Bibliography 13. Metallurgical Industry in India 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Iron and Steel 13.3 Aluminum 13.4 Zinc 13.5 Copper 13.6 Lead Bibliography 14. Leather Industries 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Profile of Leather Industry Bibliography 15. Coal and Coal as Chemical Feedstock 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Coal Origin and Composition 15.2.1 Coal Resources 15.2.2 Coal Reserves 15.2.3 Coal-bed Methane (CBM) 15.2.4 Coal-production and Consumption 15.3 Types of Coal 15.4 Assesment of Coal Quality 15.4.1 Coal as Fuel 15.4.2 Coal as Chemical Feedstock 15.5 Coal Carbonization and Coke-Oven Plant 15.5.1 Coke Oven Plant 15.5.2 Coal Handling Plant and Coal Preparation Section 15.6 Gasification of Coal, Petrocoke and Biomass 15.6.1 Underground Coal Gasification (UCG) 15.6.2 Surface Gasification 15.6.3 Process Steps in Gasification 15.6.4 Gasification in Petroleum refinery 15.6.5 Gasifier Configurations 15.6.6 Gasification Reactions 15.7 New Gasifier Designs 15.7.1 GE Global/Unmixed Fuel Processor (UOP) 15.7.2 KBR Transport Gasifier (TRIGTM) 15.7.3 Catalytic Coal Gasification–BluegasTM (Parthasarthi, 2009) 15.7.4 Coal Gasification in Fertilizer Industry 15.7.5 Rapid Thermal Processing (RTP™) Process for Conversion of Biomass to Liquid Fuels 15.7.6 Co-gasification of Coal and Biomass for Methanol Synthesis Bibliography 16. Pulp and Paper Industry 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Technological Turning Point in the Indian Paper Industry 16.3 Major Challenges and Shortcomings 16.4 Raw Material 16.4.1 Secondary Fiber in Paper Making 16.5 Innovating Technologies in Paper Industry 16.6 Process Steps in the Manufacture of Pulp and Paper 16.6.1 Pulping and bleaching 16.6.2 Kraft Pulping Process 16.6.3 Pulping of Agricultural Residue 16.6.4 Bagasse Pulping 16.7 Mechanical Pulping 16.8 Newsprint 16.9 Sulfite Process 16.10 Commonly Used Terms in Pulping 16.11 Recovery of Chemicals 16.11.1 Kraft Recovery 16.11.2 Recovery of Chemicals in Agro-based Mill 16.12 Stock Preparation and Paper Making 16.12.1 Beating and Refining Process in Stock Preparation 16.12.2 Paper Machine 16.13 Advances in Pulp and Paper Industry 16.14 Various Grades of Paper Bibliography 17. Sugar and Alcohol Industry 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Process Steps in Sugar Manufacture 17.3 Ethanol 17.3.1 Fermentation of Molasses 17.3.2 Alcohol from Biomass 17.3.3 Ethanol as Biofuel and Chemical Feedstock 17.4 Integration of Sugar, Paper, Distillery and Chemical Plant Bibliography 18. Soap and Detergent 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Soap 18.2.1 Categorization of Soap 18.2.2 Raw Material 18.2.3 Soap Making Process 18.2.4 Continuous Saponification Process 18.2.5 Glycerine Recovery 18.2.6 Soap Removal 18.2.7 Salt Removal 18.2.8 Glycerine Purification 18.3 Synthetic Detergent and Linear Alkyl Benzene Detergent 18.3.1 Fatty Alcohols 18.3.2 Classification of Detergent 18.3.3 Basic Components of Detergent 18.4 Linear Alkyl Benzene 18.4.1 LAB by Solid Acid Catalyst 18.4.2 Manufacturing of Detergents 18.4.3 Process of Making Powder and Liquid Detergent Bibliography 19. Petroleum Refining 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Crude Oil and Natural Gas Origin, Occurrence, Exploration and Drilling 19.2.1 Opportunity Crude Tight Oil/Shale Gas and Shale Oil 19.3 Composition of Petroleum (Crude Oil) 19.3.1 Opportunity Oil and Shale Oil, Shale Gas 19.4 Processing of Petroleum (Crude Oil) 19.5 Crude Oil Processes in India 19.6 Refinery Processes 19.6.1 Types of Petroleum Refining Processes 19.6.2 Separation Processes 19.6.3 Conversion Processes 19.7 Crude Oil and Refining Capacity 19.7.1 Changing Scenario in Gasoline and Diesel Specifications 19.7.2 Maximizing Value Addition to Refinery Streams 19.8 Evaluation of Crude Oil, Petroleum Products and Petrochemicals 19.8.1 Sources of Indigenous Crude, Imported Crude 19.8.2 Types of Evaluation 19.8.3 Product Evaluation 19.8.4 Evaluation of Feedstocks for Petrochemicals (Olefin, Aromatics, and Linear Alkyl Benzene (Lab) Plants) 19.9 Crude Oil Blending 19.10 Crude Oil Distillation (Mall 2013, 2016, 2017) 19.10.1 Pretreatment of Crude Oils 19.10.2 Crude Oil Distillation 19.11 Thermal Cracking, Vis Breaking and Delayed Coking 19.11.1 Cracking 19.11.2 Thermal Cracking 19.11.3 Catalytic Cracking 19.12 Hydrocracking 19.12.1 Recent Development 19.13 Catalytic Reforming 19.13.1 Octane Number of Hydrocarbons 19.13.2 Process Steps in Catalytic Reforming 19.13.3 Classification of Processes 19.13.4 Catalyst in Catalytic Reforming 19.14 Alkylation, Isomerization, and Polymerization Alkylation 19.14.1 C5 alkylate 19.14.2 Isomerization 19.14.3 Polymerization 19.14.4 Lube Refinery 19.15 Desulfurization Processes and Recovery of Sulfur 19.15.1 Sulfur Output 19.15.2 Future Demand in Indian Refineries 19.15.3 Process Used to Remove Sulfur from Different Products 19.15.4 Hydrotreatment Processes 19.16 Sulfur Recovery Unit 19.16.1 Merox (Mercaptan Oxidation Unit) Bibliography 20. Petrochemical Industry 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Structure of Petrochemical Complexes 20.3 Indian Petrochemical Industry 20.3.1 Basic Petrochemicals 20.3.2 Major End Products 20.3.3 Basic Building Block Process 20.4 Petrochemicals Feedstock 20.4.1 Evaluation of Feedstocks for Aromatics, Olefins and Surfactant Plants 20.4.2 Evaluation of Feedstock for Olefin Production 20.5. Integration of Refinery with Petrochemical 20.5.1 Indamax FCC 20.5.2 Indalin Process 20.5.3 Naphtha and Gas Cracking for Production of Olefins 20.5.4 Composition of Feedstock 20.5.5 Trends in Technological Developments of Steam Crackers for Production of Ethylene (Mall, 2017) 20.5.6 Product Profile of C5 Hydrocarbon 20.5.7 Butadiene 20.5.8 Isobutylene 20.5.9 Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE) 20.5.10 Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (ETBE) 20.5.11 Tertiary Amyl Methyl Ether (TAME) 20.6 Synthesis Gas and its Derivatives: Hydrogen, Co, Methanol, Formaldehyde, Methanol to Olefin Technology 20.6.1 Synthesis Gas 20.6.2 Methanol 20.6.3 Formaldehyde 20.6.4 Acetic Acid (CH3COOH) 20.6.5 Chloromethanes (Methyl Chloride, Methylene Dichloride, Chloroform, Carbon Tetrachloride) 20.6.6 Dimethylformamide [HCON(CH3)2] 20.6.7 Acetylene 20.7 Ethylene Derivatives: Ethylene Oxide, Ethylene Glycol, Ethylene Dichloride and Vinyl Chloride 20.7.1 Ethylene Oxide (EO) 20.7.2 Mono-, Di-, and Tri-ethylene Glycols (MEG, DEG, TEG) 20.7.3 Vinyl Chloride 20.7.4 Vinyl Acetate 20.7.5 Ethanol 20.7.6 Acetaldehyde 20.7.7 Acetone 20.8 Propylene, Propylene Oxide, and Isopropanol 20.8.1 Propylene 20.8.2 Propylene Oxide, Propylene Glycol, and Polyols 20.9 Aromatic Production 20.9.1 Catalytic Reforming 20.9.2 Process Description 20.9.3 Reactions in Catalytic Reforming Process 20.9.4 Major Units of Aromatic Complex 20.9.5 Process Steps in Aromatic Production 20.10 Aromatics Product Profile, Ethyl Benzene and Styrene, Cumene and Phenol, Bisphenol, Aniline 20.10.1 Ethyly Benzene and Styrene 20.10.2 Phthalic Anhydride 20.10.3 Cumene 20.10.4 Phenol 20.10.5 Aniline 20.10.6 Benzoic Acid (C6H5COOH) 20.10.7 Bisphenol Bibliography 21. Polymer, Elastomer and Synthetic Fiber 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Plastic Industry in India 21.2.1 Classification of Polymer 21.3 Elastomer 21.4 Synthetic Fiber 21.4.1 Overview of Indian Man-made Textile Industry 21.5 Raw Materials 21.6 Polymers 21.6.1 Polyolefins 21.6.2 Polyethylene 21.6.3 Polypropylene 21.6.4 Polystyrene 21.7 Elastomers 21.7.1 Historical Development 21.7.2 Synthetic Rubber 21.7.3 Styrene Butadiene Rubber 21.7.4 Polybutadiene 21.7.5 Polyisobutylene (Butyl Rubber) 21.7.6 Nitrile Rubber 21.7.7 Polyisoprene 21.7.8 Neoprene (Polychloroprene) 21.7.9 Chlorobutyl Rubber 21.7.10 Silicone Rubber (Polysiloxanes) 21.7.11 Fluorosilicone Rubber 21.7.12 Polyurethane Rubber 21.7.13 Ethylene/Propylene Number 21.7.14 Ethylene Vinyl Acetate Rubber 21.7.15 Hypalon 21.7.16 Spandex 21.7.17 Polysulfide Rubber 21.8 Synthetic Fiber 21.8.1 Nylon 6, Nylon 6,6, Cyclohexane, Caprolactam, Adipic Acid and Hexamethylene Diamine 21.8.2 Dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and Terephathalic Acid (TPA), Polyester, PET Resin, PBT Resin 21.8.3 Acrylonitrile, Acrylic Fiber, Modified Acrylic Fiber, Polyurethane 21.8.4 Cellulosic Fibers (Viscose Rayon and Acetate Rayon, Cuprammonium Rayon) (Mall, 2013) Bibliography 22. Agrochemicals 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Classification and Characteristics of Some Major Pesticides 22.2.1 Process Technology 22.2.2 Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane 22.2.3 Biopesticides 22.3 New Generation Insecticides 22.3.1 Insect Growth Regulators Bibliography 23. Dyestuff Industry 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Demand and Supply 23.3 Classification of Dyes 23.3.1 Gamma Acid 23.3.2 Tobias Acid 23.3.3 Metanillic Acid (6-Chlorometanillic Acid) 23.3.4 β-Naphthol 23.3.5 Anthraquinone-1-Sulfonic Acid (Sodium Salt) 23.3.6 Anthraquinone-1-Sulfonic Acid (Ammonium Salt) 23.3.7 Resorcinol 23.3.8 Dark Blue 23.3.9 Violanthrone Bibliography 24. Paint, Varnish and Lacquers 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Profile of Paint Industry 24.3 Raw Material for Paint Industry 24.4 Glossary of Terms 24.5 General Manufacturing Process of Paints and Resins 24.5.1 Synthetic resins 24.5.2 Alkyd Resin and Modified Alkyd Resin 24.6 Decorative Liquid Paints Bibliography 25. Pharmaceutical Industry 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Profile of Pharmaceutical Industry 25.3 Commonly Used Terms in Pharmaceutical Industry 25.3.1 Active pharmaceutical Ingredient 25.4 Structure of Pharmaceutical Industry 25.4.1 Manufacture of API 25.4.2 Role of Pharmaceutical Industry and Paradigm Shift in Drug Discovery 25.5 Raw Material for Pharmaceutical Industry Bibliography 26. Corrosion and Material of Construction in Chemical Industries 26.1 Introduction 26.1.1 Major Areas of Concerns in Chemical Process Industries 26.1.2 Fundamentals of Corrosion 26.1.3 Theory of Corrosion 26.1.4 Classification of Corrosion 26.1.5 Forms of Corrosion 26.1.6 Factors Affecting Corrosion 26.1.7 Corrosion Cells 26.1.8 Basic Methods of Combating Corrosion for External Pipe Corrosion 26.1.9 Corrosion Monitoring 26.2 Corrosion in Process Industry 26.2.1 Corrosion in Fertilizer Industry 26.2.2 Corrosion in Pulp and Paper Industries 26.2.3 Corrosion in Petroleum and Petrochemical Industries 26.3 Corrosion Prevention and Control 26.3.1 Corrosion Inhibitors 26.3.2 Design Consideration 26.3.3 Coating and Lining 26.3.4 Cathodic Protection and Anodic Protection 26.3.5 Corrosion in Inline Instrument 26.3.6 Corrosion Monitoring Bibliography 27. Energy Management in Chemical Industry 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Renewable Energy in India 27.3 Energy Consumption and Conservation Measures 27.3.1 Management of Steam 27.4 Energy Consumption in Pulp and Paper Industry 27.5 Energy Conservation Measure in Cement Plant 27.6 Energy Conservation in Fertilizer Plants 27.7 Energy Conservation Measures in Petroleum Refinery and Petrochemical Industry 27.7.1 Energy Recovery with Compact Heat Exchangers 27.7.2 Energy Management System ISO 50001 27.8 Nuclear Energy 27.8.1 Profile of Nuclear Power India 27.8.2 Nuclear Power Generation Bibliography 28. Environment, Health and Safety in Chemical Process Industry 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Environmental Protection Acts, Rules, and Various Amendments 28.3 Environment, Health and Safety Management in Process Industries 28.3.1 Characteristics of Hazardous and Toxic Wastes 28.3.2 Categorization of Industrial Sectors 28.4 Environmental Pollution from Petroleum and Petrochemical Industry 28.4.1 Gasoline Benzene Reduction 28.4.2 Hazards in Petroleum and Petrochemical Industry 28.4.3 Safety in Cracker Plant 28.5 Environmental Pollution in Pulp and Paper Industry 28.5.1 Air Pollution from Craft Pulping 28.5.2 Categorization of Pulp and Paper Mills 28.5.3 Innovation in Technology for Waste Management in Pulp and Paper Industry 28.5.4 Potential health and safety hazards in pulp and paper production 28.5.5 Major Accident Reported in Pulping Section 28.6 Risk and Hazard in Chlorine Handling and Processing 28.7 Enviromental Pollution from Fertilizer Plants 28.7.1 Hazardous Waste from Fertilizer Industry 28.7.2 Environmental Impact of Fertilizer Manufacture and Use 28.8 Environmental Pollution from Cement Plant 28.9 Environmental Pollution from Caustic Chlorine Plant 28.9.1 Demercurization of Waste Water 28.9.2 Coke Oven Plant 28.9.3 Thermal Power Plant 28.9.4 Aluminum Industry 28.9.5 Copper and Zinc Plants 28.9.6 Sugar and Distilleries 28.10 Cleaner Technology and Green Chemistry 28.10.1 Principle of Green Chemistry and Cleaner Technology 28.10.2 Clean Production Technologies in Chemical Process Industries 28.10.3 Cleaner Technology in Pulp and Paper Industry 28.10.4 Clean Production Technologies in Petroleum and Petrochemical Industry Bibliography Appendices Appendix 1: Quantities and SI Unit Appendix 2: Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Major Inorganic and Organic Chemicals Appendix 3: Major Petroleum, Petrochemical, Fertilizer and Chemical Industries in India Appendix 4: Major Manufacturing Associations Appendix 5: Cost of Various Crude Oils and Petroleum Products Index Cover back