Food Security for African Smallholder Farmers

Description

This book provides a synthesis of current agricultural research in Africa with the aim of presenting evidence based information that can be directly applied into improving the African smallholder farmers’ food security. It presents positive scientific research that has been undertaken in Africa, in simpler terms, thus driving the research for development agenda contributing to the attainment of SDG 2. Numerous research that targets resource poor African smallholder farmers has been published, yet the region faces very low productivity levels. This lack of translation from research to food security and increased agricultural incomes is due to the poor uptake of scientific research by farmers, which is partly due to poor presentation of this body of knowledge into simpler forms that extension workers and farmers can directly adopt. Therefore, this book offers research information in an easy, digestible and application oriented style, so as to enable transformation of the African agricultural sector by effectively driving agricultural productivity in Africa. This book is of interest to African extension workers, who will translate the simplified knowledge into lessons that can be useful to smallholder farmers. The book is also beneficial for policy makers as well as academics, researchers and other science based professionals. Contents About the Editors Part I: Agronomy: Soils and Crop Development Chapter 1: Decades of Cultivar Development: A Reconciliation of Maize and Bean Breeding Projects and Their Impacts on Food, Nu... 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Maize Cultivar Development and Impacts 1.2.1 Maize Breeding Projects 1.2.1.1 Drought Tolerant Maize and Water Efficient Maize for Africa Projects 1.2.1.2 Improved Maize for African Soils 1.2.1.3 Stress Tolerant Maize for Africa 1.2.1.4 Biofortified Maize for Improved Human Nutrition and TELA Projects 1.2.1.5 Maize Lethal Necrosis Projects 1.2.1.6 Accelerating Genetic Gains Project 1.2.2 Maize Cultivar Adoption and Economic Impacts 1.3 Common Bean Cultivar Development and Impact 1.3.1 Common Bean Breeding Projects 1.3.1.1 Tropical Legumes Projects 1.3.1.2 Accelerated Varietal Improvement Seed Delivery of Legume and Cereal Crops Project 1.3.1.3 Alliance-PABRA Projects TAAT High Iron Bean Project Precooked Beans for Food, Nutrition, and Income 1.3.1.4 HarvestPlus Projects (Phases I, II, and III) 1.3.2 Common Bean Cultivar Adoption and Impacts 1.3.2.1 Cultivar Releases in Multiple Countries 1.3.2.2 Bean Cultivar Adoption and Impacts 1.4 Testimonials by Farmers and Other Value Chain Actors 1.5 Conclusions and Recommendations References Chapter 2: From Soil to Fork: Can Sustainable Intensification Guarantee Food Security for Smallholder Farmers? 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Overview of Current Challenges to Agricultural Food Production in African Smallholder Agriculture 2.2.1 Population Pressure 2.2.2 Unsustainable Farming Practices 2.2.3 Climate Change 2.3 Sustainability in Agriculture 2.4 What Is Sustainable Intensification of Agriculture? 2.5 Sustainable Intensification Concepts and Practices 2.6 Benefits of Sustainable Intensification of Crop Production in African Smallholder Agriculture 2.7 Policies Supporting Sustainable Intensification of Crop Production in African Smallholder Agriculture 2.8 Conclusions References Chapter 3: Sub-Saharan Africa Smallholder Farmers Agricultural Productivity: Risks and Challenges 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Causes of Low Yield in Smallholder African Farms 3.2.1 Climate Change 3.2.2 Pests and Diseases 3.2.3 Gender Inequality 3.2.4 HIV/AIDS and Pandemics 3.2.5 Lack of Infrastructure 3.2.6 Agriculture Extension Support 3.2.7 Management Practices 3.2.8 Mechanization 3.3 Policy Level Changes Required to Drive Smallholder Productivity 3.3.1 Land Tenure 3.3.2 Farm Labour and Gender Equality 3.3.3 Knowledge Sharing 3.3.4 Communication 3.4 Conclusion References Chapter 4: Integrated Use of Livestock Manure and Inorganic Fertilizer for Sustainable Agricultural Intensification on Margina... 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Marginal Lands in Current and Future Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa 4.3 The Application and Importance of Agricultural Intensification in Sub-Saharan Africa 4.4 The Integrated Use of Manure and Inorganic Fertilizer: A Key Strategy for Achieving Sustainable Agricultural Intensificati... 4.4.1 The Integrated Use of Manure and Inorganic Fertilizer to Increase Crop Productivity on Marginal Lands in Sub-Saharan Afr... 4.4.2 The Combined Use of Livestock Manure and Inorganic Fertilizer to Enhance Soil Physical Properties in Marginal Lands of S... 4.4.3 The Integrated Use of Manure and Inorganic Fertilizer Enhance Soil Chemical and Biological Properties in Marginal Lands ... 4.4.4 The Integrated Use of Manure and Inorganic Fertilizer to Fulfill Criteria for Sustainable Agricultural Intensification i... 4.5 Conclusion References Chapter 5: In-Field Soil Conservation Practices and Crop Productivity in Marginalized Farming Areas of Zimbabwe 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Soil Conservation Practices 5.3 Soil Conservation Practices that Increase Soil Resistance to Erosion 5.4 Minimum Tillage 5.5 In-Field Soil Conservation that Reduce Soil Erosivity 5.6 Contour Farming 5.7 Strip Cropping 5.8 Windbreaks 5.9 Buffer Strips 5.10 Cropping System 5.11 Mixed Cropping and Inter-Planting 5.12 Cover Crops 5.13 Conclusion References Chapter 6: Can Organic Soil Fertility Management Sustain Farming and Increase Food Security Among African Smallholder Farmers? 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Characteristics of Soils Among Smallholder Farmers in Africa 6.3 Indigenous Farming Technologies Being Promoted by Smallholder Farmers 6.3.1 Mixed Crop-Animal Farming 6.3.2 Intercropping or Companion Cropping 6.3.3 Traditional Organic Composting 6.3.4 Legume-Based Crop Rotations 6.3.5 Agroforestry 6.4 Organic Agriculture: The Principles 6.5 Climate Smart Soil Fertility and Quality Systems with a Thrust Toward Organic Agriculture 6.5.1 Conservation Agriculture 6.5.2 Biochar in Organic Farming 6.5.3 Ecological Agriculture 6.5.4 Mixed or Companion Cropping and Crop Rotation Benefits 6.6 Conclusions References Chapter 7: Precision Agriculture Under Arid Environments: Prospects for African Smallholder Farmers 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The Arid Environments of Africa and Agriculture 7.3 Climate Change in Agriculture Under Dryland Environments 7.4 Older Adopted Technologies in Farming 7.5 Precision Agriculture in African Agriculture 7.6 Current Precision Farming Technologies Adoptable by Smallholder Farmers 7.6.1 Soil Fertility Management 7.6.2 Hydroponics 7.6.3 Controlled Environment 7.6.4 Genetically Modified Crops 7.6.5 Herbicide Use 7.6.6 Handheld Engine Powered Farming Tools 7.7 Conclusion References Chapter 8: Challenges and Opportunities for Soil Fertility and Food Security Improvement in Smallholder Maize-Tobacco Producti... 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Description of a Maize-Tobacco Farming System in Zimbabwe 8.3 Challenges of Maize-Tobacco Systems 8.3.1 Shortage of Labour 8.3.2 Infertile Soils 8.3.3 Soil Disturbance and Its Effects on Soil Quality 8.4 Opportunities in Maize-Tobacco Systems 8.4.1 Generation of High Nutrient Value Organic Wastes 8.4.2 Composting Opportunities with Tobacco Waste 8.4.3 Improvement of Soil Properties and Maize Yields with Tobacco Waste Composts 8.4.4 Income Generation 8.5 Conclusion References Chapter 9: On-Farm Research Challenges for Agronomic Field Trials in Smallholder Systems: A Practical Experience from Zanyokwe... 9.1 Introduction 9.2 On-Farm Field Trial Challenges 9.2.1 Logistical Challenges 9.2.2 Language Barrier Challenges 9.2.3 Labour Challenges 9.2.4 Leasing and Land Tenure-Related Challenges 9.2.5 Pest Problems 9.2.6 Lack of Technical Knowhow 9.2.7 Unsustainable Land Management Practices 9.2.8 Tillage-Related Crop Loss 9.2.9 Limited Understanding of On-Farm Trials by Farmers 9.2.10 Negative Farmer Attitudes Towards Research Trials 9.3 Increase in Productivity Based on Scientific Advice at Zanyokwe Irrigation Scheme 9.4 Lessons Learnt 9.4.1 Importance of Appropriate Research Approaches 9.4.2 The Importance of Understanding Farmer Attitudes and Perceptions 9.4.3 Issues Arising 9.4.4 Interdisciplinary Approach to On-Farm Research 9.5 Conclusion References Part II: Water Resources in Agriculture and Fisheries Chapter 10: Agricultural Water Resource Governance for Sustainable Food Production: Lessons from Developing Economies 10.1 Background 10.2 Unpacking the Food-Energy-Water Nexus 10.2.1 Conceptual and Analytical Framework 10.2.2 Agricultural Water Access and Management System in Developing Economies 10.2.2.1 Irrigation Organisations and Water Governance Systems (GS) Accountability System (GS.2) and Operational Rules (GS.4) with the Agricultural Water Sector Property Rights System (GS.3) in Agricultural Water Sector 10.2.2.2 Resource System and Irrigation Management in Smallholder Irrigation Schemes 10.2.2.3 Resource Unit in Irrigation Water Management Systems 10.2.2.4 Resource Users and the Decision-Making Process in Irrigation Water Management 10.2.2.5 Importance of Positive Psychological Capital in CPR Management 10.3 Alternative Agricultural Water Governance Mechanisms for Increased Production 10.4 Conclusion and Recommendation References Chapter 11: Aquaculture and Fisheries Production in Africa: Highlighting Potentials and Benefits for Food Security 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 What Is Aquaculture and Fisheries? 11.1.2 What Is Food Security? 11.1.3 State of the Aquatic Environments in Africa 11.1.4 Aquatic Components and Food Security in Africa 11.2 Aquaculture and Fisheries in Africa 11.2.1 Present Challenges in Aquaculture and Fisheries in Africa 11.2.2 Potentials and Benefits of Aquaculture for Food Security in Africa 11.2.3 Aquaculture and Fisheries: Satisfying the Pillars of Food Security 11.2.3.1 Availability 11.2.3.2 Access 11.2.3.3 Utilization 11.2.3.4 Stability 11.3 Practical Solutions for Improvement in Aquaculture and Fisheries Sector for Food security 11.3.1 Aquaculture 11.3.1.1 Repositioning and Re-defining the Relevance of Research Institutions 11.3.1.2 Re-energising Extension Services and Activities 11.3.1.3 Provision of Solution Bus Stops 11.3.1.4 Bringing Aquaculture to the Youths 11.3.1.5 Re-visiting Previous Regional and African Treaties and Programs 11.3.1.6 Infusing Research Findings into Industry and Field Activities 11.3.2 Wild Fisheries Production and Management 11.3.2.1 Africa, Sustainable Fishing and Food Security 11.4 Conclusion and Recommendations References Chapter 12: Medicinal Plants: A Perspective on Their Application in the African Smallholder Aquaculture Farms 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Some Medicinal Plants Studied in Aquaculture in Africa 12.3 Mode of Administration 12.4 The Effects of Medicinal Plants Extracts on Fish Growth and Feed Utilization Performance 12.5 Disease Control in Aquaculture 12.5.1 Medicinal Plants as Disease Controlling Agents in Aquaculture 12.5.2 Medicinal Plants as Immunostimulants in Fish 12.5.3 Medicinal Plants as Antibacterial Agents 12.6 Medicinal Plants Application in Feeds for Small-Scale Aquaculture 12.6.1 Medicinal Plants Application in Aqua Feeds 12.6.2 How to Reduce the Effect of Anti-Nutrients? 12.7 Medicinal Plant Extracts as Anaesthetics in Aquaculture 12.8 Medicinal Plants as Sex Reversal Agents in Aquaculture 12.9 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References Chapter 13: Application of Integrated Water Resources Management Towards Livelihood Improvement: A Case of Smallholder Farmers... 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Water Resource Use in Namibia 13.3 A Brief Overview on Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) 13.4 Water Resources Management in Namibia 13.5 Addressing Food Security in the Olushandja Sub-Basin 13.6 Conclusion References Part III: Climate Change and Resilience Chapter 14: Climate Change Impacts on Food and Nutrition Security on Smallholder Farmers in Southern Africa 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Long-Term Climate Change 14.3 Changes in Precipitation Pattern 14.4 Changes in Other Variables and Weather Patterns 14.4.1 Seasonal Climate Patterns 14.5 Climate Change and Food Production (Availability) 14.6 Climate Change Impacts on Food Access and Livelihoods 14.7 Climate Change Impacts on Nutrition and Utilization 14.8 Climate Change and Health 14.9 What Farmers Can Do to Adapt to Climate Change 14.10 Options for Adaptation to Climate Change 14.10.1 How to Support Smallholder Farmers to Adapt to Climate Change 14.10.2 Undertake Regular Assessment of Climate Change Risks and Vulnerability 14.10.3 Modernize Extension Services 14.10.4 Improve Access to Genetic Resources 14.10.5 Exploit the Growing Availability of Information Technology 14.10.6 Facilitate Investments by Smallholder Farmers 14.10.7 Explore the Potential of Innovation Insurance Schemes to Manage Weather Risks 14.10.8 Ensure People Are more Resilient to Climate Change-Enhanced Water Availability Risks 14.11 Conclusion References Chapter 15: Climate-Smart Agriculture: Perspectives for Subsistence Crop Farming in Namibia 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Agriculture in Namibia 15.3 Policies and Programmes that Support Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) in Namibia 15.4 Climate-Smart Technologies Being Promoted in Namibia 15.4.1 Conservation Agriculture 15.4.2 Improved Stress-Tolerant Seed 15.4.3 Irrigation 15.5 Challenges with the National Adoption of CSA Practices in Namibia 15.5.1 Knowledge Management 15.5.2 Lack of Dedicated CSA Funding 15.5.3 Ignoring Indigenous Knowledge Systems 15.6 Conclusions References Chapter 16: Smallholder Farmers´ Adaptation Strategies and Food Security: Experiences from Zimbabwe 16.1 Introduction 16.2 A Global Overview of Food Security 16.3 Climate Change and Food Security 16.4 Challenges in Attaining Food Security in Zimbabwe 16.5 Zimbabwean Farmers´ Experiences and Perceptions on Adaptation Strategies and Food Security 16.6 Moving beyond Incremental Adaptation Towards Transformative Adaptation to Climate Change 16.7 Conclusions References Chapter 17: Building Resilience to Climate Change by Adopting Conservation Agriculture in the Smallholder Farming Systems 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Building Resilience to Climate Change by Adopting Conservation Agriculture 17.3 Conservation Agriculture (CA) 17.4 Minimum Soil Disturbance 17.5 The Principle of Permanent Soil Cover (Mulching)/Leaving Crop Residues on the Soil Surface 17.6 The Principles of Crop Diversification/Rotation 17.7 Crop Management under CA System 17.8 Impact of Conservation Agriculture on Crop Resilience to Climate Change 17.9 Benefits of CA to Smallholder Farmers 17.10 Adoption of the Conservation Agriculture Technology in Zimbabwe and Challenges Faced by Smallholder Farmers 17.11 Challenges Faced by Smallholder Farmers in Adopting CA 17.12 Conclusions References Chapter 18: Contribution of Underutilised Indigenous Crops to Enhanced Food and Nutrition Security in the Advent of Climate Ch... 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Pathways Towards Mainstreaming Indigenous Food Crops 18.3 State of African Leafy Vegetable in South Africa 18.4 The Potential of ALV in Addressing Food and Nutrition Insecurity 18.5 Barriers to the Integration of Indigenous Crops into Food Systems 18.6 Effects of Drought on ALVs 18.7 Nutritional Water Productivity (NWP) 18.8 Conclusions and Recommendations References Part IV: Farmer Knowledge: Indigenous Knowledge Systems Chapter 19: Liquid Gold: Harnessing the Potential of Digestate to Enhance Smallholder Farmer Food Security and Livelihood 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Physico-Chemical and Biological Properties of Digestate 19.2.1 Dry Matter Content of Digestate 19.2.2 Total Organic Matter in Digestate 19.2.3 Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio of Digestate 19.2.4 Total Nitrogen in Digestate 19.2.5 pH of Digestate 19.2.6 Phosphorus and Potassium in Digestate 19.2.7 Biological Properties of Digestate 19.3 Applications of Digestate 19.3.1 Digestate as Soil Amendment or Organic Fertilizer 19.3.2 Digestate for Seed Priming 19.3.3 Digestate as Fungicide 19.3.4 Digestate as Soil Remediation Agent 19.3.5 Digestate in Livestock Management 19.3.6 Digestate in Bioprocesses 19.4 Post-Treatment of Digestate Prior to Downstream Applications 19.4.1 Separation of Solid and Liquid Digestate 19.4.2 Sanitization of Digestate 19.4.3 Solid Digestate Post-Treatment 19.4.3.1 Drying and Pelletizing Digestate 19.4.3.2 Composting Digestate 19.4.4 Liquid Digestate Post-Treatment 19.5 Recommendations 19.6 Conclusion References Chapter 20: Importance of Mushrooms for Food Security in Africa 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Some Indigenous African Mushrooms: Nutritional and Medicinal Content 20.3 African Indigenous Mushroom and Components of Food Security 20.4 Essential Fatty Acids in the Oyster Mushroom Pleurotus Ostreatus (Jacq.ex.fr) P. Kumm (Pleurotaceae): The Content and Che... 20.4.1 Fatty Acids Content of Oyster Mushrooms 20.4.2 The Chemistry of Essential Fatty Acids 20.4.3 Essential Fatty Acids Commonly Found in Oyster Mushrooms and Their Role in Health 20.4.3.1 Linoleic Acid 20.4.3.2 Alpha-Linolenic Acid 20.5 Hindrances to Mushroom Production in Africa 20.5.1 Lack of Production Space 20.5.2 Training Content, Cost and Certification 20.5.3 Lack of Financial Support 20.5.4 Markets 20.5.5 Water Problems 20.5.6 Perishability of Mushrooms 20.6 Conclusion References Chapter 21: Mushroom Cultivation in Arid Namibia: Cultivation Status, Contribution to Human Health and Future Prospects 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Mushroom Consumption in Namibia 21.3 Status of Mushroom Cultivation in Namibia 21.4 Contribution of Mushrooms to Human Health 21.5 Future Prospects of the Mushroom Cultivation Industry in Namibia 21.6 Conclusion References Part V: Socio-agro Economy Chapter 22: `Can Women Own Land´? Land Inheritances Convolutions: Evidence from the Zimbabwean Resettlement Areas 22.1 Introduction: Contextualising the Gender Realities of Land Inheritance 22.2 Epistemological and Theoretical Framing 22.3 Reflections from Women Smallholder Farmers in Masvingo District 22.4 Rural Food Security-Witchcraft Nexus 22.5 Women´s Land Ownership Through the Idiom of Honorary Husband 22.6 Women Land Ownership: Woman Heir in the Rural Enclave 22.7 Single Women, Land Ownership and Livelihoods 22.8 Synthesis: Yes, Women Can Own Land But 22.9 Conclusions References Part VI: Agricultural Policy Chapter 23: The Governance of Aquaculture in Namibia as a Vehicle for Food Security and Economic Growth 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Aquaculture in Namibia 23.2.1 Marine Aquaculture 23.2.2 Freshwater Aquaculture 23.3 Governance of Aquaculture in Namibia 23.3.1 Governance Institutions 23.3.2 Licensing Requirements 23.3.3 Property Rights in Aquaculture 23.3.4 Aquaculture Management and Control Measures 23.4 Aquaculture as a Driver for Food Security in Namibia 23.5 Aquaculture as a Driver for Economic Growth of Namibia 23.6 Conclusion References Chapter 24: A Decade of Agronomic Research Impact on Commercializing Traditional Homestead Production of Amadumbe in Umbumbulu... 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Identification of the Purpose 24.2.1 A Decade Later (Return Study) 24.2.2 An Emergent Research Topic 24.2.3 An Emergent Research Question 24.2.4 Study Assumptions 24.2.5 Study Limits 24.3 Approach and Livelihood Framework 24.4 Methodology 24.4.1 Location and Characteristics of Study Area 24.4.2 Sampling and Composition of Participants 24.4.3 Data Collection and Analysis 24.5 Results and Discussions 24.5.1 Overall Sustainability 24.5.2 Biological Productivity: Improvements to Soil Health and Quality 24.5.3 Impacts on Rural Livelihoods 24.5.3.1 Ezigeni Village Impact 24.5.3.2 Explaining the Score of 1 24.5.4 Other Factors Impacting on Sustainability 24.5.4.1 Age and Level of Education 24.5.4.2 Impact on Production Practices 24.5.4.3 Land Use and Cropping System 24.6 Conclusions References Correction to: Sub-Saharan Africa Smallholder Farmers Agricultural Productivity: Risks and Challenges Correction to: Chapter 3 in: H. A. Mupambwa et al. (eds.), Food Security for African Smallholder Farmers, https://doi.org/10.1... Index