Research In Psychology: Methods And Design

Description

An approachable, coherent, and important text, Research in Psychology: Methods and Design, 8th Edition continues to provide its readers with a clear, concise look at psychological science, experimental methods, and correlational research in this newly updated version. Rounded out with helpful learning aids, step-by-step instructions, and detailed examples of real research studies makes the material easy to read and student-friendly. Cover......Page 1 Title Page......Page 3 Copyright......Page 4 Contents......Page 7 Summary of Research Examples......Page 17 Preface......Page 19 Chapter 1 Scientific Thinking in Psychology......Page 23 Why Take This Course?......Page 24 Use of Reason......Page 27 Empiricism......Page 28 The Ways of Knowing and Science......Page 30 Science Assumes Determinism......Page 31 Science Produces Public Knowledge......Page 32 Box 1.1: ORIGINS—A Taste of Introspection......Page 33 Science Produces Data‐Based Conclusions......Page 34 Science Produces Tentative Conclusions......Page 35 Science Develops Theories That Can Be Falsified......Page 36 Psychological Science and Pseudoscience......Page 37 Recognizing Pseudoscience......Page 38 Associates with True Science......Page 39 Box 1.2: CLASSIC STUDIES—Falsifying Phrenology......Page 40 Relies on Anecdotal Evidence......Page 41 Sidesteps the Falsification Requirement......Page 42 Describe......Page 43 Apply......Page 44 A Passion for Research in Psychology......Page 45 Eleanor Gibson (1910–2002)......Page 46 B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)......Page 47 Chapter 2 Ethics in Psychological Research......Page 52 Box 2.1: CLASSIC STUDIES—Infants at Risk......Page 53 Developing a Code of Ethics for Psychological Science......Page 54 Weighing Benefits and Costs: The Role of the IRB......Page 57 Informed Consent and Deception in Research......Page 60 Box 2.2: ETHICS—Historical Problems with Informed Consent......Page 61 Informed Consent and Special Populations......Page 63 Use of Deception......Page 64 Treating Participants Well......Page 65 Research Ethics and the Internet......Page 68 Ethical Guidelines for Research with Animals......Page 69 Box 2.3: ORIGINS—Antivivisection and the APA......Page 70 Using Animals in Psychological Research......Page 72 Caring for the Animals......Page 74 Scientific Fraud......Page 75 Data Falsification......Page 76 Chapter 3 Developing Ideas for Research in Psychology......Page 82 The Goals: Basic versus Applied Research......Page 83 The Setting: Laboratory versus Field Research......Page 85 Research Example 1—Combining Laboratory and Field Studies......Page 86 The Data: Quantitative versus Qualitative Research......Page 88 Operational Definitions......Page 89 Developing Research from Observations of Behavior and Serendipity......Page 91 Developing Research from Theory......Page 92 The Nature of Theory......Page 93 The Relationship between Theory and Research......Page 94 Falsification......Page 96 Box 3.2: CLASSIC STUDIES—Falsification and Der Kluge Hans......Page 97 Parsimony......Page 99 Developing Research from Other Research......Page 100 Research Teams and the “What’s Next?” Question......Page 101 Research Example 2 – “What’s Next?”......Page 102 Replication......Page 104 Box 3.3: ETHICS—Questionable Research Practices and Replication Remedies......Page 105 Creative Thinking in Science......Page 106 Computerized Database Searches......Page 108 Search Tips......Page 109 Search Results......Page 110 Chapter 4 Sampling, Measurement, and Hypothesis Testing......Page 115 Random Sampling......Page 116 Cluster Sampling......Page 117 What to Measure—Varieties of Behavior......Page 118 Developing Measures from Constructs......Page 119 Research Example 3—Testing Constructs Using Habituation......Page 120 Research Example 4—Testing Constructs Using Reaction Time......Page 121 Box 4.1: ORIGINS—Reaction Time: From Mental Chronometry to Mental Rotation......Page 122 Reliability......Page 123 Validity......Page 125 Research Example 5—Construct Validity......Page 126 Scales of Measurement......Page 127 Nominal Scales......Page 128 Ordinal Scales......Page 129 Box 4.2: CLASSIC STUDIES—Measuring Somatotypes on an Interval Scale: Hoping for 4-4-4......Page 130 Ratio Scales......Page 131 Statistical Analysis......Page 132 Descriptive Statistics......Page 133 Box 4.3: ETHICS—Statistics that Mislead......Page 138 Inferential Statistics......Page 139 Null Hypothesis Significance Testing......Page 140 Type I and Type II Errors......Page 142 Interpreting Failures to Reject H0......Page 143 Beyond Null Hypothesis Significance Testing......Page 144 Effect Size......Page 145 Confidence Intervals......Page 146 Power......Page 147 Chapter 5 Introduction to Experimental Research......Page 151 Essential Features of Experimental Research......Page 152 Box 5.1: ORIGINS—John Stuart Mill and the Rules of Inductive Logic......Page 153 Varieties of Manipulated Independent Variables......Page 154 Research Example 6—Experimental and Control Groups......Page 155 Controlling Extraneous Variables......Page 156 Measuring Dependent Variables......Page 158 Subject Variables......Page 159 Research Example 7—Using Subject Variables......Page 160 Drawing Conclusions When Using Subject Variables......Page 162 Box 5.2: CLASSIC STUDIES—Bobo Dolls and Aggression......Page 163 Statistical Conclusion Validity......Page 165 Other Populations......Page 166 Box 5.3: ETHICS—Recruiting Participants: Everyone’s in the Pool......Page 10 Other Environments......Page 169 Internal Validity......Page 170 Studies Extending Over Time......Page 171 History and Maturation......Page 172 Regression to the Mean......Page 173 Subject Selection Effects......Page 174 Attrition......Page 175 A Final Note on Internal Validity, Confounding, and External Validity......Page 176 Chapter 6 Methodological Control in Experimental Research......Page 181 Between‐Subjects Designs......Page 182 Random Assignment......Page 183 Matching......Page 185 Within‐Subjects Designs......Page 189 Controlling Order Effects......Page 191 Partial Counterbalancing......Page 192 Testing More than Once per Condition......Page 193 Block Randomization......Page 194 Research Example 8—Counterbalancing with Block Randomization......Page 195 Methodological Control in Developmental Research......Page 196 Box 6.1: CLASSIC STUDIES—The Record for Repeated Measures......Page 198 Experimenter Bias......Page 199 Controlling for Experimenter Bias......Page 200 Research Example 9—Using a Double Blind Procedure......Page 201 Participant Bias......Page 202 Box 6.2: ORIGINS—Productivity at Western Electric......Page 203 Research Example 10—Demand Characteristics......Page 204 Controlling for Participant Bias......Page 205 Box 6.3: ETHICS—Research Participants Have Responsibilities Too......Page 207 Chapter 7 Experimental Design I: Single‐Factor Designs......Page 211 Single Factor—Two Levels......Page 212 Between‐Subjects, Single‐Factor Designs......Page 213 Research Example 11—Two-Level Independent Groups Design......Page 214 Research Example 12— Two-Level Matched Groups Design......Page 215 Within‐Subjects, Single‐Factor Designs......Page 216 Box 7.1: CLASSIC STUDIES—Psychology’s Most Widely Replicated Finding?......Page 217 Research Example 14—Two-Level Repeated Measures Design......Page 218 Single Factor—More Than Two Levels......Page 220 Research Example 15—Multilevel Independent Groups Design......Page 221 Research Example 16—Multilevel Repeated Measures Design......Page 223 Presenting the Data......Page 224 Types of Graphs......Page 225 Box 7.2: ORIGINS—The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve......Page 226 Statistics for Single-Factor, Two-Level Designs......Page 228 Statistics for Single-Factor, Two-Level Designs......Page 229 Placebo Control Group Designs......Page 231 Box 7.3: ETHICS—Who’s in the Control Group?......Page 232 Research Example 17—Using Both Placebo and Wait List Control Groups......Page 234 Research Example 18—A Yoked Control Group......Page 235 Chapter 8 Experimental Design II: Factorial Designs......Page 241 Identifying Factorial Designs......Page 242 Main Effects......Page 243 Research Example 19—Main Effects......Page 245 Interactions......Page 247 Combinations of Main Effects and Interactions......Page 251 Creating Graphs for the Results of Factorial Designs......Page 254 Box 8.1: CLASSIC STUDIES—To Sleep, Perchance to Recall......Page 257 Varieties of Factorial Designs......Page 259 Mixed Factorial Designs......Page 260 Research Example 21—A Mixed Factorial with Counterbalancing......Page 261 Research Example 22—A Mixed Factorial without Counterbalancing......Page 262 Factorials with Subject and Manipulated Variables: P × E Designs......Page 263 Research Example 23—A Factorial Design with a P × E Interaction......Page 266 Research Example 24—A Mixed P × E Factorial with Two Main Effects......Page 267 Recruiting Participants for Factorial Designs......Page 268 Box 8.2: ETHICS—On Being a Competent and Ethical Researcher......Page 270 Analyzing Data from Factorial Designs......Page 271 Box 8.3: ORIGINS—Factorials Down on the Farm......Page 272 Chapter 9 Non‐Experimental Design I: Survey Methods......Page 277 Box 9.1: ORIGINS—Creating the “Questionary”......Page 278 Sampling Issues in Survey Research......Page 279 Types of Survey Questions or Statements......Page 281 Adding Demographic Information......Page 284 A Key Problem: Survey Wording......Page 285 In-Person Interviews......Page 288 Mailed Written Surveys......Page 289 Online Surveys......Page 290 Box 9.2: ETHICS—Using and Abusing Surveys......Page 291 Research Example 25—A Survey of College Students’ Study Strategies......Page 292 Correlation: Describing Relationships......Page 294 Scatterplots......Page 295 Correlation Coefficients......Page 297 Coefficient of Determination......Page 298 Regression: Making Predictions......Page 299 Research Example 26 – Regression and Multiple Regression......Page 302 Directionality......Page 304 Research Example 27—Correlations and Directionality......Page 305 Third Variables......Page 306 Research Example 28—Combining Methods......Page 308 Chapter 10 Non‐Experimental Design II: Observational and Archival Methods......Page 313 Varieties of Observational Research......Page 314 Naturalistic Observation......Page 315 Box 10.1: CLASSIC STUDIES—When Prophecy Fails......Page 316 Absence of Control......Page 317 Observer Bias......Page 318 Participant Reactivity......Page 319 Box 10.2: ETHICS—A Matter of Privacy......Page 320 Research Example 29—A Naturalistic Observation......Page 321 Research Example 30—A Covert Participant Observation......Page 323 Analyzing Qualitative Data from Non‐Experimental Designs......Page 324 Archival Research......Page 325 Archival Data......Page 326 Research Example 31—A Non-Experimental Design Using Archival Data......Page 327 Analyzing Archival Data......Page 329 Meta‐Analysis—A Special Case of Archival Research......Page 330 Research Example 32—Meta-analysis and Psychology’s First Registered Replication Report (RRR)......Page 331 Chapter 11 Quasi‐Experimental Designs and Applied Research......Page 335 Beyond the Laboratory......Page 336 Research Example 33—Applied Research......Page 337 Applied Psychology in Historical Context......Page 338 Box 11.1: CLASSIC STUDIES: —: The Hollingworth’s, Applied Psychology, and Coca-Cola......Page 340 Design Problems in Applied Research......Page 341 Nonequivalent Control Group Designs......Page 342 Outcomes......Page 343 Regression to the Mean and Matching......Page 344 Research Example 34—A Nonequivalent Control Group Design......Page 347 Interrupted Time Series Designs......Page 349 Outcomes......Page 350 Research Example 36—An Interrupted Time Series Design......Page 351 Variations on the Basic Time Series Design......Page 352 Box 11.2: ORIGINS—Reforms as Experiments......Page 354 Planning for Programs—Needs Analysis......Page 355 Research Example 37—Assessing Need in Program Evaluation......Page 356 Monitoring Programs—Formative Evaluation......Page 357 Evaluating Outcomes—Summative Evaluation......Page 358 Weighing Costs—Cost‐Effectiveness Analysis......Page 359 Box 11.3: ETHICS—Evaluation Research and Ethics......Page 360 Chapter 12 Small N Designs......Page 365 Research in Psychology Began with Small N......Page 366 Box 12.1: ORIGINS—Cats in Puzzle Boxes......Page 368 Occasional Misleading Results from Statistical Summaries of Grouped Data......Page 369 Practical and Philosophical Problems with Large N Designs......Page 371 The Experimental Analysis of Behavior......Page 372 Box 12.2: ETHICS—Controlling Human Behavior......Page 375 Elements of Single‐Subject Designs......Page 377 Withdrawal Designs......Page 378 Multiple Baseline Designs......Page 379 Changing Criterion Designs......Page 382 Research Example 40—A Changing Criterion Design......Page 383 Research Example 41—An Alternating Treatments Design......Page 385 Evaluating Single‐Subject Designs......Page 387 Case Study Designs......Page 389 Box 12.3: CLASSIC STUDIES—The Mind of a Mnemonist......Page 392 Evaluating Case Studies......Page 393 Epilogue: What I Learned in My Research Methods Course......Page 398 Research Reports and APA-Style......Page 401 Using Numbers......Page 402 Reducing Bias in Language......Page 404 Avoiding Plagiarism......Page 405 Main Sections of the Research Report......Page 406 Tips for Presenting a Poster......Page 417 Chapter 1. Scientific Thinking in Psychology......Page 421 Chapter 3. Developing Ideas for Research in Psychology......Page 422 Chapter 4. Sampling, Measurement, and Hypothesis Testing......Page 423 Chapter 5. Introduction to Experimental Research......Page 424 Chapter 6. Methodological Control in Experimental Research......Page 425 Chapter 7. Experimental Design I: Single‐Factor Designs......Page 427 Chapter 8. Experimental Design II: Factorial Designs......Page 430 Chapter 9. Non‐Experimental Design I: Survey Methods......Page 432 Chapter 11. Quasi‐Experimental Designs and Applied Research......Page 433 Chapter 12. Small N Designs......Page 435 Appendix A. Communicating the Results of Research in Psychology......Page 436 Glossary......Page 438 References......Page 452 Index......Page 473 EULA......Page 479