Investigating Oceanography

Description

Investigating Oceanography is an introductory oceanography text is intended to teach students the tremendous influence oceans have on our lives. They are encouraged to look at oceanography as a cohesive and united discipline rather than a collection of subjects gathered under a marine umbrella. Investigating Oceanography teaches students about the historical, geological, physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the ocean environment using remarkable images and photos. The authors have incorporated essays written by several scientists discussing topics in their fields of specialization. In addition to understanding processes and principles, the authors believe students must have a basic command of the language of marine science in order to understand the constant barrage of information concerning our planet and marine issues. By the end of this course, the authors want students to be prepared for future environmental discussions and the ability to make decisions as informed global citizens. Cover Title Copyright About the Authors Brief Contents Contents PREFACE PROLOGUE: The History of Oceanography P.1 The Early Times P. 2 The Middle Ages P. 3 Voyages of Discovery P. 4 The Importance of Charts and Navigational Information P.5 Ocean Science Begins P.6 Early Expeditions of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries The Challenger Expedition The Voyage of the Fram The Meteor Expedition P.7 Ocean Science in Modern Times Establishing Oceanographic Institutions Large-Scale, Direct Exploration of the Oceans Diving in "FLIP," the Floating Instrument Platform Diving in Planning and Executing a Successful Oceanographic Expedition P. 8 Oceanography from Space The View from Space Oceanographic Applications for Geology Oceanographic Applications for Physics Oceanographic Applications for Chemistry and Biology Our Wired World A Glimpse of Our Future Summary CHAPTER 1 The Water Planet 1.1 Cosmic Beginnings Origin of the Universe Origin of Our Solar System Extraterrestrial Oceans Diving in Origin of the Oceans Early Planet Earth 1.2 Earth's Age and Time Earth's Age Geologic Time Natural Time Periods 1.3 Earth's Shape 1.4 Where on Earth Are You? Latitude and Longitude Measuring Latitude Longitude and Time 1.5 Modern Navigation 1.6 Earth Is a Water Planet Water on Earth's Surface Hydrologic Cycle Reservoirs and Residence Time Distribution of Land and Water One World Ocean Divided into Five Hypsographic Curve Summary Key Terms Study Problems CHAPTER 2 Earth Structure and Plate Tectonics 2.1 Earth's Interior Earthquake Waves Reveal Earth's Layers Model 1: Layers with Different Mineral and Chemical Compositions Model 2: Layers with Different Strengths and Physical Properties Isostasy 2.2 History of a Theory: Continental Drift 2.3 Evidence for a New Theory: Seafloor Spreading Evidence for Crustal Motion 2.4 Plate Tectonics Plates and Their Boundaries Divergent Boundaries Transform Boundaries Convergent Boundaries Continental Margins 2.5 Motion of the Plates Mechanisms of Motion Rates of Motion Hotspots 2.6 History of the Continents The Breakup of Pangaea Before Pangaea Summary Key Terms Study Problems CHAPTER 3 The Sea Floor and Its Sediments 3.1 Measuring the Depths 3.2 Seafloor Provinces Continental Margins and Submarine Canyons Abyssal Plains Ridges, Rises, and Trenches Diving in Exploring the Mariana Trench 3.3 Sediments Why Study Sediments? Classification Methods Particle Size Location and Rates of Deposition Source and Chemistry Patterns of Deposit on the Sea Floor Formation of Rock Sampling Methods Sediments as Historical Records 3.4 Seabed Resources Sand and Gravel Phosphorite Oil and Gas Gas Hydrates Manganese Nodules Sulfide Mineral Deposits Summary Key Terms Study Problems CHAPTER 4 The Physical Properties of Water 4.1 The Water Molecule 4.2 Temperature and Heat 4.3 Changes of State 4.4 Specific Heat 4.5 Cohesion, Surface Tension, and Viscosity 4.6 Density The Effect of Pressure The Effect of Temperature The Effect of Salt 4.7 Transmission of Energy Heat Light Sound Diving in The Acoustic World of Marine Organisms and the Problem of Anthropogenic Noise Summary Key Terms Study Problems CHAPTER 5 The Chemistry of Seawater 5.1 Salts Dissolving Ability of Water Units of Concentration Ocean Salinities Dissolved Salts Sources of Salt Regulating the Salt Balance Residence Time Constant Proportions Determining Salinity 5.2 Gases Distribution with Depth The Carbon Dioxide Cycle The Oxygen Balance Measuring the Gases 5.3 Carbon Dioxide and the Ocean The pH of Seawater The Marine Carbonate System and Buffering pH Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide and Ocean Acidification 5.4 Nutrients and Organics Nutrients Organics 5.5 Practical Considerations: Salt and Water Chemical Resources Desalination Summary Key Terms Study Problems CHAPTER 6 The Atmosphere and the Oceans 6.1 Heating and Cooling Earth's Surface Distribution of Solar Radiation Heat Budget Annual Cycles of Solar Radiation Specific Heat and Heat Capacity Diving in Oceanography of Tidewater Glacier Margins: Undergraduate Research on Svalbard 6.2 Sea Ice and Icebergs Sea Ice Icebergs 6.3 Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere Structure of the Atmosphere Composition of Air Carbon Dioxide and the Greenhouse Effect Ozone Diving in Clouds and Climate 6.4 The Atmosphere in Motion Atmospheric Pressure Winds on a Nonrotating Earth The Effects of Rotation Wind Bands 6.5 Modifying the Wind Bands Seasonal Changes The Monsoon Effect The Topographic Effect 6.6 Hurricanes and Coastal Flooding Hurricanes Coastal Flooding 6.7 El Niño–Southern Oscillation Summary Key Terms Study Problems Study Problems CHAPTER 7 Ocean Structure and Circulation 7.1 Ocean Structure Variation of Temperature with Depth Variation of Salinity with Depth Variation of Density with Depth 7.2 Thermohaline Circulation and Water Masses Thermohaline Circulation Water Masses 7.3 The Layered Oceans The Atlantic Ocean The Pacific Ocean The Indian Ocean The Arctic Ocean Internal Mixing 7.4 What Drives the Surface Currents? The Ekman Spiral and Ekman Transport Ocean Gyres Geostrophic Flow 7.5 Ocean Surface Currents Pacific Ocean Currents Atlantic Ocean Currents Indian Ocean Currents Arctic Ocean Currents Antarctic Currents The Indonesian Through flow 7.6 Current Characteristics Current Speed Current Volume Transport Western Intensification 7.7 Eddies 7.8 Convergence and Divergence Langmuir Cells Permanent Zones Seasonal Zones 7.9 Global Meridional Overturning Circulation 7.10 Changing Circulation Patterns North Pacific Oscillations North Atlantic Oscillations 7.11 Measuring the Currents Diving in Ocean Drifters Summary Key Terms Study Problems CHAPTER 8 The Waves 8.1 How a Wave Begins Forces Influencing Waves Two Types of Wind-Generated Waves 8.2 Anatomy of a Wave 8.3 Wave Speed 8.4 Deep-Water Waves in Detail Deep-Water Wave Motion Deep-Water Wave Speed Storm Centers Dispersion Group Speed Wave Interaction Wave Height Rogue Waves Wave Energy Wave Steepness Universal Sea State Code 8.5 Shallow-Water Waves in Detail Shallow-Water Wave Motion Shallow-Water Wave Speed Refraction Reflection Diffraction 8.6 The Surf Zone Breakers Water Transport and Rip Currents Energy Release 8.7 Tsunami Diving in The March 11, 2011, Japanese Tsunami 8.8 Internal Waves 8.9 Standing Waves 8.10 Practical Considerations: Energy from Waves Summary Key Terms Study Problems CHAPTER 9 The Tides 9.1 Tide Patterns 9.2 Tide Levels 9.3 Tidal Currents 9.4 Modeling the Tides The Earth-Moon System Earth and Moon Rotation The Sun Tide Spring Tides and Neap Tides Declinational Tides Elliptical Orbits 9.5 Real Tides in Real Ocean Basins The Tide Wave Progressive Wave Tides Standing Wave Tides Tide Waves in Narrow Basins 9.6 Tidal Bores 9.7 Predicting Tides and Tidal Currents Diving in Measuring Tides from Space Tide Tables Tidal Current Tables 9.8 Practical Considerations: Energy from Tides Summary Key Terms Study Problems CHAPTER 10 Coasts, Beaches, and Estuaries 10.1 Major Coastal Zones 10.2 Types of Coasts Primary Coasts Secondary Coasts 10.3 Anatomy of a Beach 10.4 Beach Dynamics Natural Processes Coastal Circulation 10.5 Beach Types 10.6 Modifying Beaches Coastal Structures The Santa Barbara Story The History of Ediz Hook 10.7 Estuaries Types of Estuaries Circulation Patterns Temperate-Zone Estuaries 10.8 Regions of High Evaporation 10.9 Flushing Time Summary Diving in Public Aquariums in Ocean Research and Education Key Terms Study Problems CHAPTER 11 The Living Ocean 11.1 Evolution in the Marine Environment 11.2 Marine Biodiversity Diving in Assessing Marine Biodiversity with Environmental DNA 11.3 The Flow of Energy 11.4 Groups of Organisms 11.5 Environmental Zones Pelagic Benthic 11.6 Facts of Life in the Ocean Light Temperature Salinity Diving in Bioluminescence in the Sea Pressure Buoyancy Inorganic Nutrients Dissolved Gases pH 11.7 The Importance of Size Summary Key Terms Study Problems CHAPTER 12 The Plankton, Productivity, and Food Webs 12.1 The Marine Photoautotrophs 12.2 The Plankton 12.3 Bacterioplankton and Viruses 12.4 Phytoplankton Diatoms Dinoflagellates Coccolithophorids Cyanobacteria Prasinophytes Harmful Algal Blooms 12.5 Zooplankton Diving in Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Research and Control Act 12.6 Primary Production 12.7 Measuring Primary Productivity 12.8 Phytoplankton Biomass 12.9 Controls on Productivity and Biomass 12.10 Food Webs and the Biological Pump Food Webs Biological Pump Marine Bacteria and Nutrients 12.11 Global Patterns of Productivity Summary Key Terms Study Problems CHAPTER 13 The Nekton: Swimmers of the Sea 13.1 The Nekton Defined 13.2 Swimming Marine Invertebrates 13.3 Marine Reptiles Sea Snakes Sea Turtles 13.4 Marine Birds 13.5 Fish Jawless Fish Sharks, Skates, and Rays Bony Fish Deep-Sea Species of Bony Fish 13.6 Marine Mammals Sea Otters Walrus Polar Bears Seals and Sea Lions Sea Cows Whales Whaling Marine Mammal Protection Act Communication Diving in Whale Falls Summary Key Terms Study Problems CHAPTER 14 The Benthos: Living on the Sea Floor 14.1 The Benthic Environment 14.2 Seaweeds and Marine Plants General Characteristics of Benthic Algae Kinds of Seaweeds Marine Plant Communities 14.3 Organisms of the Rocky Shore Tide Pools Submerged Rocky Bottoms 14.4 Organisms of the Soft Substrates 14.5 Organisms of the Deep-Sea Floor 14.6 Coral Reefs Tropical Corals Tropical Coral Reefs Coral Bleaching Predation and Disease Human Activities Diving in Undersea Ultraviolet Radiation Deep-Water Corals 14.8 Symbiosis 14.7 Deep-Ocean Chemosynthetic Communities Hot Vents Cold Seeps Summary Key Terms Study Problems CHAPTER 15 Environmental Issues 15.1 Human Impacts Through Time 15.2 Marine Pollution Solid Waste Dumping Sewage Effluent Toxicants 15.3 Plastic Trash 15.4 Eutrophication and Hypoxia 15.5 Oil Spills Diving in Impacts from the Deepwater Horizon Spill 15.6 Marine Wetlands 15.7 Biological Invaders 15.8 Overfishing and Incidental Catch Trends in Fishing Pressure Indirect Impacts Fish Farming Ecosystem-Based Fishery Management 15.9 Afterthoughts Summary Key Terms Study Problems CHAPTER 16 The Oceans and Climate Disruption 16.1 Earth as a Whole: The Oceans and Climate 16.2 The Ocean and Climate Change Earth's Past Climate Earth's Present Climate Earth's Future Climate 16.3 The Oceans in a Warmer World Ocean Acidification Rising Sea Level Winds, Waves, and Storms Diving in Arctic Sea Ice Loss, Midlatitude Extreme Weather, and Superstorm Sandy Thermohaline Circulation Biological Responses 16.4 Mitigation Strategies Ocean Energy Carbon Sequestration Diving in The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change The International Response Summary Key Terms Study Problems Appendix A: Scientific (or Exponential) Notation Appendix B: SI Units Appendix C: Equations and Quantitative Relationships Glossary A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P R S T U V W Z Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z