Hybrid Polymeric Nanocomposites from Agricultural Waste

Description

Hybrid Polymeric Nanocomposites from Agricultural Waste examines the use of agricultural by-products for green production of new materials. It covers nanoparticle synthesis from agricultural wastes and nanocomposite development with a focus on polyethylene, polylactic acid, polymethylmethacrylate, and epoxy resins, and considers possible biomedical and engineering applications. Showcases agricultural waste as polymer reinforcements to replace expensive synthetic fibres that discourage wide polymeric nanocomposite applications Discusses green synthesis and characterisation of hybrid nanocomposites from polylactic acid, polymethylmethacrylate, recycled/new polyethylene, and epoxy resins Contrasts hybrid nanocomposites properties with standard nanocomposites, using automotive case studies The book is aimed at researchers, advanced students, and industrial professionals in materials, polymer, and mechanical engineering and related areas interested in the development and application of sustainable materials. Cover Half Title Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Contents Preface Acknowledgement Editor Biography Contributors Section I: Fundamentals 1. Emerging Materials in Polymer Reinforcement 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Fibre-Reinforced Polymers 1.3 Particle-Reinforced Polymers 1.4 Filler-Reinforced Polymers 1.5 Lightweight Materials, Properties, and Applications 1.6 Polymeric Nanocomposite 1.7 Particulate Reinforcements 1.8 Rule of Mixture 1.9 Needs of Hybridisation of Reinforcing Particles 1.10 Hybrid Effect of Reinforcement in Composite 1.11 Current State of Hybrid Particle Composites 1.12 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hybrid Composite 1.12.1 Advantages of Hybrid Composites 1.12.2 Disadvantages of Hybrid Composites 1.13 Prior Studies in Hybridisation of Materials 1.14 Conclusions/Summary References 2. An Overview of the Sources, Structure, Applications, and Biodegradability of Agricultural Wastes 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Bioproducts 2.3 Agricultural Wastes, Burnings, and Their Challenges 2.3.1 Agricultural Wastes 2.3.2 Burning and Their Challenges 2.4 Benefits of Moringa oleifera Tree: Pods as Sources of Reinforcing Nanoparticles 2.4.1 Moringa oleifera Parts 2.4.2 Synthesis of Nanoparticles (NPs) from Moringa oleifera 2.5 Seed Structure and Applications of Daniella oliveri (Rolfe) Tree 2.5.1 Importance of Daniella oliveri 2.5.2 Seed Structure of Daniella oliveri 2.5.3 Present and Future Applications of Bioproducts from the Daniella oliveri Seed 2.6 Structure and Applications of Banana Stems 2.6.1 Banana Stems 2.6.2 Chemical, Physical, and Mechanical Properties of Banana Stems 2.6.3 Applications of Banana Stems 2.6.4 Economic Significance of Banana Stem Waste 2.7 Importance and Challenges of Eggshells 2.7.1 The Importance of Eggshells in Agriculture 2.7.2 Challenges of Eggshells 2.8 Agricultural Wastes as Colour Adsorbing and Filtering Materials 2.8.1 Conventional Methods of Absorbing Colour 2.8.2 Agricultural Wastes as Adsorbents 2.8.2.1 Physical Activation 2.8.2.2 Chemical Activation 2.9 Techniques and Impacts of Agricultural Waste-Derived Energy 2.9.1 Biochemical Conversion Techniques 2.9.1.1 Anaerobic Digestion 2.9.1.2 Fermentation 2.9.1.3 Transesterification 2.9.2 Thermochemical Conversion Techniques 2.9.2.1 Gasification 2.9.2.2 Combustion 2.9.2.3 Pyrolysis 2.9.2.4 Liquefaction 2.10 Sustainability and Evaluation of Energy Generated from Agricultural Wastes 2.10.1 Economic Considerations 2.10.2 Environmental Considerations 2.10.3 Social Considerations 2.11 Cost of Energy Generated from Wastes Compared with Energies from Other Sources 2.12 Conclusions Acknowledgement References 3. Nanocomposites Based on Nanoparticles from Agricultural Wastes 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Categories of Agricultural Wastes 3.2.1 Methods of Nanoparticle Synthesis from Agricultural Wastes 3.2.2 Composites 3.2.3 Formulation of a Nanocomposite 3.3 Processing of Polymer Nanocomposites 3.3.1 In-Situ Polymerisation 3.3.1.1 Solution Blending 3.3.1.2 Melt Blending 3.3.2 Direct Mixing 3.3.3 Sol-Gel Method 3.3.4 Production of Polymer Nanocomposites 3.3.5 Strategies to Achieve Improved Dispersion Quality (Chemical and Physical Modification) 3.4 Properties and Applications of Agricultural Waste Particle-Reinforced Polymers 3.4.1 Advantages of Polymer Nanocomposites 3.4.2 Disadvantages of Polymer Nanocomposites 3.4.3 Characterisation of Polymer Nanocomposites 3.4.4 Structure of Polymer Nanocomposites 3.4.5 Properties of Polymer Nanocomposites 3.4.5.1 Mechanical Properties 3.4.5.2 Barrier Properties 3.4.5.3 Thermal Properties 3.4.5.4 Microstructural Properties 3.4.5.5 Dimensional Stability 3.4.6 Application of Polymer Nanocomposites 3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Particulate Nanocomposites Based on Agricultural Wastes 3.5.1 Advantages 3.5.2 Disadvantages 3.6 Cost Comparison Between Conventional and Agricultural Particle Polymeric Nanocomposites 3.7 Future Directions of Particulate Polymer Nanocomposites 3.8 Conclusion References 4. Organic and Inorganic Nanoparticles from Agricultural Waste 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Methods of Synthesis 4.2.1 Top-Down Approach 4.2.1.1 Mechanical Milling 4.2.1.2 Combustion 4.2.1.3 Ionotropic Gelation 4.2.1.4 Sonochemical 4.2.2 Bottom-Up Approach 4.2.2.1 Wet Chemical/Precipitation 4.2.2.2 Sol-Gel 4.2.2.2.1 Metallothermic Reduction 4.2.2.3 Hydrothermal 4.3 Characterisation and Size Determination 4.4 Inorganic Nanoparticles: Structures, Properties, and Applications 4.5 Organic Nanoparticles: Structures, Properties, and Applications 4.6 Conclusions References 5. Computational Approaches to Polymeric Nanocomposites 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Analytical Methods 5.2.1 Mechanical Properties 5.2.1.1 Rule of Mixtures 5.2.1.2 Halpin-Tsai Model 5.2.1.3 Mori-Tanaka Model 5.2.2 Thermal Properties 5.2.2.1 Micromechanical Approach 5.2.2.2 Effective Medium Approach 5.3 Numerical Methods 5.3.1 Molecular Scale Methods 5.3.1.1 Molecular Dynamics 5.3.1.1.1 Time Integration 5.3.1.2 Monte Carlo 5.3.2 Microscale Methods 5.3.2.1 Lattice Boltzmann Method 5.3.2.2 Brownian Dynamics 5.3.2.3 Dissipative Particle Dynamics 5.3.3 Mesoscale and Macroscopic Methods 5.3.3.1 Micromechanics Approach 5.3.3.2 Equivalent-Continuum Approach 5.3.3.3 Finite Element Method 5.3.4 Multiscale Modelling 5.4 Computational Approach to PNC Property Predictions 5.4.1 Stiffness and Strength 5.4.2 Stress Transfer 5.4.3 Fatigue and Fracture 5.4.4 Creep 5.5 Challenges and Prospects 5.6 Concluding Remarks Nomenclature References Section II: Agricultural Waste-Based Polyethylene-Based Nanocomposites 6. Agricultural Waste Reinforced Polyethylene-Based Hybrid Nanocomposites: Design Formulations and Mechanical Properties 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Polyethylene as a Thermoplastic Material 6.3 Recycling of Thermoplastics Waste 6.4 Formulation, Processing, and Characterisation of Polyethylene Matrix Composites 6.5 Viability of Using Agricultural Waste Particles to Develop Polyethylene Matrix Composites 6.6 State-of-the-Art of Research on Polyethylene Matrix Composites: Processing Methods, Properties Enhancement, and Applications 6.7 Materials Preparation and Production of Polyethylene Composites 6.8 Characterisation of Polyethylene Matrix Composites 6.9 Microstructural Properties of Polyethylene Composite 6.10 Water Absorption of Polyethylene Matrix Composites 6.11 Tensile Strength of Polyethylene Matrix Composites 6.12 Modulus of Elasticity of Polyethylene Matrix Composites 6.13 Hardness of Polyethylene Matrix Composites 6.14 Impact Energy of Polyethylene Matrix Composites 6.15 Conclusion/Summary References 7. Delonix regia Pod Particles Reinforced Nanocomposites: Properties Comparison between Recycled and Virgin Low-Density Polyethylene 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Green Synthesis and Characterisation 7.2.1 Preparation and Characterisation of Delonix regia Pod Nanoparticles 7.2.2 Fabrications of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene 7.2.3 Structural Characterisations of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene 7.2.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis 7.2.3.2 Scanning Electron Microscopic Characterisation of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene 7.2.4 Mechanical Investigation of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene 7.2.4.1 Tensile Test 7.2.4.2 Flexural Test 7.2.4.3 Hardness Test 7.2.4.4 Impact Energy 7.3 Chemistry and Structures 7.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction Profiles of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene 7.3.2 Microstructural Properties of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene 7.3.2.1 Transmission Electron Microscopic Images and Sizes of Reinforcing Particles 7.3.2.2 Scanning Electron Micrograph of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene Composites 7.4 Mechanical Properties of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene 7.4.1 Tensile Properties of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene 7.4.2 Flexural Properties of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene Composites 7.4.3 Hardness Values of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene 7.4.4 Impact Energy of Delonix regia Pod Particle-Reinforced Low-Density Polyethylene 7.5 Conclusions and Summary Acknowledgement References Section III: Agricultural and Domestic Waste-Based Nanocomposites of Other Polymers 8. Particulate-Reinforced Polylactic Composites: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Strengthening of Polylactic Acids Using Agricultural Waste Nanoparticles 8.2.1 Polylactic Acid 8.2.1.1 Structure of Polylactic Acid 8.2.1.2 Agricultural Waste as Reinforcement 8.2.2 Cellulose 8.2.3 Lignin 8.2.4 Hemicellulose 8.2.5 Extractives 8.3 Properties of Polylactic Acid 8.3.1 Mechanical Properties 8.3.1.1 Stiffness (Elastic Modulus) 8.3.1.2 Tensile Strength 8.3.2 Thermal Stability 8.4 Applications of Polylactic Acid 8.4.1 Food Packaging Applications 8.4.2 Application in Automotive Industry 8.4.3 Agricultural Mulching Materials 8.5 Conclusions and Summary References 9. Parquetina nigrescens: Date Seed Pod Particle Polymethylmethacrylate Nanocomposites for Biomedical Applications 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and Its Properties 9.3 Synthetic Additives to Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and Properties 9.4 Potentials of Parquetina nigrescens Pods as Sources of Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications 9.4.1 Parquetina nigrescens 9.4.2 Properties and Uses of Parquetina nigrescens 9.4.3 Synthesis, Chemistry, and Toxicity of Parquetina nigrescens Pod Nanoparticle 9.4.4 Optical Properties of Parquetina nigrescens Pod Nanoparticles 9.4.4.1 Transmittance 9.4.4.2 Absorbance and Absorbance Coefficient 9.4.4.3 Extinction Coefficient 9.4.4.4 Analysis of Parquetina Nigrescens Pod Nanoparticle 9.5 Date Seed Nanoparticles: Properties and Applications 9.5.1 Date Seed 9.5.2 Compositions and Benefits of Date Seeds 9.5.3 Cultivation of Date Palm 9.5.4 Harvesting Stage and Varieties of Date Fruits 9.5.5 Properties and Uses of Date Fruits 9.5.6 UV-Visible Optical Properties of Date Seed Nanoparticles 9.5.7 Chemical Compositions and Toxicity of Date Seed Nanoparticles 9.6 Synthesis, Structures, Properties, and Applications of Particulate-Reinforced Polymethylmethacrylate Nanocomposites References Section IV: Industrial Applications 10. Particulate Hybrid Epoxy Nanocomposite: Structures, Tensile Properties, Regression Analysis, and Applications 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Manufacturing of Hybrid Particle-Reinforced Epoxy 10.2.1 Hybrid Reinforcements 10.2.2 Synthesis of Aluminium Nanoparticles 10.2.3 Synthesis of Coconut Shell Nanoparticles 10.2.4 Development of Coconut Shell Aluminium Reinforced Epoxy Nanocomposites 10.3 Characterisation of Hybrid Particle-Reinforced Epoxy 10.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Examination 10.3.2 Optical Microscopic Analysis 10.3.3 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Examination 10.3.4 Tensile Properties Determination 10.3.5 Density Measurement 10.3.6 Thermal Property Determination 10.4 Properties of Hybrid Particle-Reinforced Epoxy 10.4.1 X-Ray Diffractometric Properties 10.4.2 Microstructural Properties of Hybrid Particle-Reinforced Epoxy 10.4.3 Tensile Properties of Hybrid Particle-Reinforced Epoxy Nanocomposites 10.4.4 Modelling of Tensile Strength of Hybrid Particle-Reinforced Epoxy Nanocomposites 10.4.5 Density and Dynamic Thermal Properties of Hybrid Particle-Reinforced Epoxy 10.5 Future Direction of 4% aluminium 6% uncarbonised coconut shell particle reinforced epoxy nanocomposites 10.6 Conclusions and Summary References 11. Parquetina nigrescens-Reinforced Polylactic Acid (PLA) Composites for Engineering Applications 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Biopolymers/Bioplastics: Production, Markets, Benefits, and Applications 11.3 Polylactic Acids: Production, Properties, Advantages, and Challenges 11.4 Life Cycle of PLA 11.5 Agricultural Waste Management and Utilisation for Green Composites Development 11.6 Modifications of Polylactic Acids (PLA) Using Agricultural Waste Fibres/Nanoparticles 11.6.1 Production of PLA-Based Composites 11.6.2 Typical Productions of Parquetina nigrescens Fibre-Reinforced Polylactic Acid Composites 11.6.3 Characterisations of Parquetina nigrescens Fibres and PLA Composites 11.6.3.1 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) Analysis 11.6.3.2 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis 11.6.3.3 Tensile Tests 11.6.3.4 Impact Energy Determination 11.7 Structural Properties of Parquetina nigrescens-Reinforced Polylactic Acid Composites 11.7.1 Transmission Electron Microscopic Image of Parquetina nigrescens Fibres 11.7.2 X-Ray Diffractograms of the Parquetina nigrescens-Reinforced Polylactic Acid Composites 11.8 Mechanical Properties of PLA-Based Green Composites 11.8.1 Tensile and Compressive Strength of the PLA-Based Composites 11.8.2 Impact, Flexural, and Shear Strength of the PLA-Based Composites 11.9 Crystallinity and Thermal Characteristics of PLA and PLA-Based Composites 11.10 Biodegradability of Polylactic-Based Composites 11.11 Conclusions References 12. Polymeric Nanocomposites for Artificial Implants 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Requirements of Materials for Artificial Bone Implants 12.2.1 Structural Properties of Materials for Artificial Bone Implants 12.2.2 Mechanical Properties of Materials for Artificial Bone Implants 12.2.3 Wear Resistance Properties of Materials for Artificial Bone Implants 12.2.4 Biocompatibility and Cytotoxicity of Materials for Artificial Bone Implants 12.3 Polymethylmethacrylate-Based Composites Implants 12.3.1 Mechanical Properties of Polymethylmethacrylate 12.3.2 Composition of Polymethylmethacrylate 12.3.3 Polymethylmethacrylate Storage 12.3.4 Viscosity of Polymethylmethacrylate 12.3.5 Deformation of Polymethylmethacrylate 12.3.6 Thermal Properties of Polymethylmethacrylate 12.3.7 Use of Polymethylmethacrylate Composites 12.4 Polylactic Acid-Based Composites for Bone Implants 12.4.1 Polylactide-Based Composites 12.4.2 Polylactic Acid-Based Composite Fabrication Techniques 12.4.3 Mechanical Properties of Polylactic Acid-Based Composite 12.4.4 Thermal Properties of Polylactic Acid-Based Composite 12.4.5 Rheological Properties of Polylactic Acid-Based Composite 12.5 Ultrahigh Molecular Weight-Based Composites for Bone Implants 12.5.1 Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene/Hydroxyapatite Composites 12.5.2 Graphene Derivative-Reinforced Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene Composites 12.5.3 Processing of Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene/Hydroxyapatite Composites 12.5.4 Mechanical Properties of Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene Composites 12.5.5 Biocompatibility of Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene Composite 12.6 Review of Clinical Practice on Artificial Bone Implants 12.6.1 Clinical Factors for Successful Implants 12.6.1.1 Orthopaedic Implants 12.6.1.2 Cosmetic Implants 12.6.2 Development of Implant Materials 12.6.2.1 Metallic Implants 12.6.2.2 Polymeric Implants 12.6.2.3 Ceramics Implants 12.6.3 Trend of Development in Clinical Implants 12.6.3.1 Ancient Era (AD 1000) 12.6.3.2 Foundational Period (1800-1910) 12.6.3.3 Premodern Era (1901-1930) 12.6.3.4 Modern Era (1935-1978) 12.6.3.5 Implants in the 21st Century 12.7 Conclusion and Summary Acknowledgements References Index