Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Global Zero Tolerance Policy and Diverse Responses from African and Asian Local Communities

Description

This open access book shows how the adoption of global justice, such as eradication of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), has given rise to controversy, resistance, and transformation at the national, regional, and grass-roots levels in African and Asian countries where FGM/C has been practiced. It provides readers with up-to-date information about the effects of the campaign to eradicate FGM/C and the present situation of those countries, to which preceding books on FGM/C have scarcely referred. Adopting “zero tolerance” as a policy of eradication, WHO and other UN agencies have opposed any type of FGM/C, and many African countries have criminalized the practice. Although the campaign is based on the human rights discourse which is shared globally, the controversies concerning eradication of FGM/C on the national level and the responses of communities on the local level in those countries are diverse and complicated. Various actors such as NGOs, government officials, religious leaders, medical workers, and local inhabitants are embroiled and negotiate with each other concerning its eradication. With this book, readers are provided with an in-depth analysis of the complicated controversies and responses of local communities, referring to their particular historical and social backgrounds. The book provides two chapters on FGM/C in Asian countries, where not many studies have done yet. It also presents readers with a study of the arguments and responses to FGM/C of African immigrants by Australian health-care professionals as well as a study of male circumcision eradication campaigns, which have been carried on in tandem with FGM/C eradication campaigns but still not have been successful. With its many elaborate case studies, this book is highly recommended to readers who seek an in-depth and up-to-date integrated overview of the FGM/C studies as well as studies on the applicability of global justice to local communities. Preface Acknowledgements Contents Editors and Contributors About the Editors Contributors 1 Introduction 1.1 WHO Definition and Classification 1.2 Terminology 1.3 The Abolition Movement and Politics and Economics in Western Societies 1.4 Enactment of Prohibition Laws and Local Reactions 1.5 Zero Tolerance and the UN Ban on “Medicalization” 1.6 Chapter Contents References 2 Global Discourse and the Patriarchal Norms of FGM: Beyond the Zero Tolerance Policy 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 FGM and Cultural Relativism 2.1.2 Local Diversity in Africa 2.1.3 The Aim of This Chapter 2.2 Zero Tolerance Policy in the International Community 2.2.1 Efforts of the International Community 2.2.2 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 2.2.3 SDGs 2.2.4 Changes in Africa 2.3 Zero Tolerance Policy in Kenya and FGM in the Somali Community 2.3.1 Zero Tolerance Policy in Kenya 2.3.2 FGM in the Somali Community 2.4 Ways of Abolishing FGM—Beyond the Zero Tolerance Approach 2.4.1 The Role of Religious Leaders 2.4.2 Positive Deviance Approach 2.5 Conclusion References 3 What Has Become of FGC After Strict Eradication Campaigns?: Female Genital Cutting and Its Eradication Activities Among the Yellow Bull in Ethiopia 3.1 Introduction 3.2 FGC in Ethiopia 3.2.1 General View of FGC in Ethiopia 3.2.2 FGC in Ethiopia Based on DHS 3.2.3 FGC in Amhara Region 3.2.4 FGC in Harari Region 3.2.5 FGC in Somali Region 3.2.6 Oromia Region 3.2.7 FGC in Transition 3.3 Forced Abolition and Resistance of Women: FGC Among the Yellow Bull 3.3.1 Historical Background of the Yellow Bull 3.3.2 FGC of the Yellow Bull 3.3.3 Patriarchy and the Politics of Interpretation: Ritual Meanings of FGC Among the Yellow Bull 3.3.4 Interpretation of FGC and Resistance of Women 3.4 Abolition of FGC in the Yellow Bull 3.4.1 FGM Abolition Campaign Among the Yellow Bull 3.4.2 Failure of Abolition 3.4.3 Stakeholders and Politics of FGC 3.5 Conclusion References 4 Ending Female Genital Mutilation: Progress and Challenges in the Somali Region, Ethiopia 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Objectives and Methods 4.2.1 Objectives 4.2.2 Methods and Sources of Data 4.2.3 Study Sites and People 4.3 Analysis of Findings 4.3.1 Interventions: Agents and Strategies 4.3.2 Ending Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Progress and Challenges 4.4 General Discussion 4.5 Conclusion References 5 Transformation and Continuation: FGC Among the Gusii People in Western Kenya 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Changes of FC/FGC in KDHS 5.3 FGC as a Tradition Among the Gusii People 5.3.1 As a Rite of Passage 5.3.2 Reasons for the Practice 5.4 Medicalization and Changes of FGC from 1980s Until 2000 5.4.1 Medicalization Since the 1980s 5.4.2 The Places of the Operation 5.4.3 People’s Reactions 5.5 How Have People’s Attitudes Changed? 5.5.1 Anti-FGM Activities 5.5.2 What About the Reaction to Anti-FGM Activities 5.5.3 No More FGC? 5.6 Conclusion References 6 An Ethnography of Diversity and Flexibility Around Female Circumcision and Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Case of a Local Community Response to the Abolition Movement in Kenya 6.1 Introduction 6.2 The Undergrounding of FGM/C 6.3 Local Intermediate Option, “Kati-Kati” 6.4 Diversification of Operation Styles and People’s Identity 6.5 Controversial Consequences of the Powerful and Inflexible Zero Tolerance Policy 6.6 Conclusion References 7 Research Note on a Grassroots Movement to Eradicate Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting Among Kenyan Maasai 7.1 FGM/C Among Maasai Girls 7.2 CBO Activities on Anti-FGM/C 7.3 Reactions of the Girl, Her Mother, and a Neighbor References 8 Female Genital Cutting in Asia: The Case of Malaysia 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Background 8.3 Prevalence 8.4 Malaysia 8.4.1 History of Malay and Islam in Malaysia 8.4.2 FGC in Malaysia 8.5 Conclusion References 9 Female Genital Cutting and the “Medical Gaze” in Southeast Asia 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Theoretical Background 9.3 FGC in Southeast Asia 9.4 FGC Through the Medical Gaze 9.5 Conclusion References 10 Healthcare Provision for Refugees and Immigrant Women with FGM Living in Australia 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Burden of Complication of FGM in Australia 10.3 Knowledge and Training of Health Care Workers 10.3.1 Doctors 10.3.2 Midwives 10.3.3 Women with FGM as Healthcare Recipients 10.4 Men and FGM 10.5 Policy Responses in Australia 10.6 Conclusion References 11 Autonomy, Bodily Integrity and Male Genital Cutting 11.1 Introduction 11.2 From Reproductive Health to Sexual Rights 11.3 Medically Unnecessary Genital Cutting 11.3.1 Terminology 11.3.2 Circumcision 11.3.3 Genital Cutting for “Health Benefits” 11.3.4 A New Trend 11.4 A Conflict of Issues 11.5 Conclusion: Leave No One Behind Appendix: Declaration of Sexual Rights References 12 Notes on the History of Feminist Activism in Sudan: Editors’ Interview with Prof. Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf 12.1 African Academics Are at the Forefront of Illuminating the Cultural Underpinnings of This Practice 12.2 Western Feminist Representations and Negative Images of Africa and Africans 12.3 Feminist Movement in Sudan 12.4 International Campaigns Should Collaborate with Community Activists References Index