Green Technologies for Waste Management: A Wealth from Waste Approach

Description

Proper waste disposal is still a serious concern worldwide. This book addresses various types of wastes such as industrial, agricultural, and municipal solid and liquid wastes, their generation, and the status of waste management in developed and developing countries. It discusses advanced green technologies used in harnessing energy and bioproducts from wastes such as electricity, biofuel, biopolymers, fertilizers, and chemicals without damaging the quality of the environment but rather creating a source that is an added value to the environment. Through many applications and case studies, this comprehensive book helps readers build a state-of-the-art knowledge on waste utilization and energy generation. FEATURES Provides a comprehensive, state-of-the-art coverage of waste management practices, their challenges, and solutions from a global perspective Discusses conceptual principles and practices of various green technologies that can be used to generate valuable products from waste and improve environmental quality Includes case studies from the United States and Japan, providing detailed explanations of advanced bioremediation technologies Takes a holistic approach to waste management and bioproducts recovery Offers an easy-to-understand and target-oriented approach that helps both students and professionals advance their knowledge in creating wealth from waste Written for undergraduate and graduate students taking courses in environmental biotechnology, environmental microbiology, non-conventional energy sources, waste treatment technologies, environmental waste utilization, energy, and environment taught in universities and colleges. The book can also be used by professionals and researchers at different levels in related fields. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Contents Preface Authors Part I: Environmental Wastes: Status, Prospects and Management 1. Waste: Classification, Generation, and Status 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Definition and Classification of Waste 1.2.1 Waste: The Concept 1.2.2 Classification of Waste 1.2.2.1 Classification Based on the Physical State 1.2.2.1.1 Solid Wastes 1.2.2.1.2 Liquid Wastes 1.2.2.1.3 Gaseous Wastes 1.2.2.2 Origin/Source-Based Classification 1.2.2.2.1 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) 1.2.2.2.2 Industrial Wastes 1.2.2.2.3 Institutional/Commercial Wastes 1.2.2.2.4 Residential Waste 1.2.2.2.5 Agricultural Wastes 1.2.2.2.6 Construction and Demolition Waste 1.2.2.2.7 Biomedical Wastes 1.2.2.2.8 Mining Wastes 1.2.2.2.9 E-Waste 1.2.2.3 Classification of Wastes Based on Degradability 1.2.2.3.1 Biodegradable/Organic Wastes 1.2.2.3.2 Non-Biodegradable/Inorganic Wastes 1.2.2.4 Classification of Wastes Based on Toxicity 1.2.2.4.1 Hazardous Wastes 1.2.2.4.2 Non-Hazardous Wastes 1.3 Techniques to Estimate Waste Generation 1.3.1 Load Count Analysis 1.3.2 Weight Volume Analysis 1.3.3 Material Mass Balance Analysis 1.4 Waste Generation, Composition, and Status (Global and National Scenario) 1.4.1 Global Generation of Waste 1.4.1.1 Waste Generation in Different Regions 1.4.1.2 Global Waste Generation in Different Income Groups 1.4.2 Global Waste Composition 1.4.3 Global Projections of Waste Generation 1.4.4 Status of Environmental Waste in India 1.4.4.1 Composition and Status of Municipal Solid Waste in India 1.5 Conclusion References 2. Waste as a Resource 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Classification of Wastes 2.2.1 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) 2.2.2 Industrial Wastes 2.2.3 Institutional/Commercial Wastes 2.2.4 Agricultural Wastes 2.3 Resource Generation from Waste 2.3.1 Resource Generation from Agricultural Wastes 2.3.2 Resource from Woody Plants Waste 2.3.3 Resources from Urban Biowastes and Animal Husbandry 2.3.3.1 Direct Land Application 2.3.3.1.1 Dairy Waste-Derived Lacto-gypsum as Soil Amendments 2.3.3.2 Direct Animal Feed (DAF) 2.3.3.3 Biological/Biochemical Conversion of Biowaste to Resource 2.3.3.3.1 Anaerobic Digestion 2.3.3.3.2 Fermentation (Ethanol Formation) 2.3.3.3.3 Biohydrogen Production 2.3.3.4 Resource Generation through Physico-Chemical Treatment of Biowastes 2.3.3.4.1 Transesterification 2.3.3.4.2 Densification 2.3.3.5 Resource Generation through Thermochemical Treatment 2.3.3.5.1 Pyrolysis 2.3.3.5.2 Liquefaction 2.3.3.5.3 Gasification 2.3.4 Resources from Municipal Sewage Sludge 2.3.4.1 Amino Acids and Proteins 2.3.4.2 Short-Chain Fatty Acids 2.3.4.3 Enzymes 2.3.4.4 Bio-Fertilizers and -Pesticides 2.3.4.5 Bio-Plastics 2.3.4.6 Bio-Flocculants 2.3.4.7 Biosurfactants 2.3.5 Valorization of Crop Byproducts/Processed Agrowastes 2.3.5.1 Agricultural Wastes as Low-Cost Adsorbents 2.3.5.2 Biochar 2.3.5.3 Cellulose and Pectin 2.3.5.4 Microbial Protein 2.3.5.5 Natural Rubber 2.3.5.6 Plant Fibers and Paper 2.3.5.7 Nanocellulose 2.3.5.8 Lignin 2.3.5.9 Oils and Fats (O and F) 2.3.5.10 Terpenes 2.3.5.11 Natural Polyelectrolytes 2.3.5.12 Nanoparticles (NPs) 2.3.5.13 Graphene 2.3.6 Resource Generation from Industrial Wastes 2.3.6.1 Bakery Products 2.3.6.2 Biocompost 2.3.6.3 Mushroom Production Oil Palm Industry Waste 2.3.6.4 Nutritional Supplements and Medical Aids from Aquaculture Waste 2.3.6.5 Biofuel from Pulp and Paper Industry Waste 2.3.6.6 Lac Dye and Gummy Mass from Lac Industry Waste 2.3.7 Algae as Biofuel Resource References 3. Life Cycle Assessment of Waste Management Systems 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Product Life Cycle 3.3 Methodology of LCA in Context of Waste Management 3.3.1 Goal 3.3.2 Scope 3.3.2.1 Product System 3.3.2.2 Functional Unit 3.3.2.3 Reference Flow 3.3.2.4 System Boundaries 3.3.2.5 Assumptions and Limitations 3.3.2.6 Data Quality Requirements 3.3.2.7 Multifunctionality and Allocation 3.3.2.8 Documentation of Data 3.3.3 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) 3.3.4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) 3.3.5 Interpretation 3.4 Conclusion References Part II: Green Technologies for Wealth Generation 4. Bioremediation 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Classification of Bioremediation 4.2.1 Ex-Situ Bioremediation 4.2.1.1 Landfarming 4.2.1.2 Compositing 4.2.1.3 Biopiling 4.2.2 In-situ Bioremediation 4.2.2.1 Bioventing 4.2.2.2 Bioslurping 4.2.2.3 Biosparging 4.2.2.4 Bioaugmentation 4.2.2.5 Biostimulation 4.2.2.6 Phytoremediation 4.2.2.7 Phytoextraction 4.2.2.8 Phytotransformation 4.2.2.9 Phytostabilisation 4.2.2.10 Phytodegradation 4.2.2.11 Phytohydraulics 4.2.2.12 Phytofiltration 4.2.2.13 Phytovolatilization 4.3 Factors Affecting Phytoremediation 4.3.1 Types of Contaminants 4.3.2 Concentration of Contaminants 4.3.3 Plant Growth Rate 4.3.4 Characteristics of Plants 4.3.5 Roots' Nature 4.4 Bioremediation of Various Pollutants 4.4.1 Organic Pollutants 4.4.2 Inorganic Pollutants 4.4.3 Heavy Metals 4.5 Limitation of Bioremediation 4.6 Root-Zone Technology 4.7 Conclusion and Future Outlook References 5. Biodegradation 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Nature of Pollutants 5.3 Biodegradation Methods 5.3.1 Composting 5.3.1.1 Composting Methods 5.3.1.2 Microbiological Aspects of Composting 5.3.1.3 Biochemical Aspects of Composting 5.3.1.4 Factors Affecting Composting Process 5.3.1.4.1 Temperature and Carbon to Nitrogen (C:N) Ratio 5.3.1.4.2 Oxygen and pH 5.3.1.4.3 Moisture Content, Particle Size, and Raw Material Texture 5.3.2 Vermicomposting 5.3.2.1 Role of Earthworm in Vermicomposting 5.3.2.2 Vermicomposting Methods 5.3.2.3 Factors Affecting Vermicomposting 5.3.2.4 Soil Fertility Maintenance through Vermicomposting 5.3.3 Solid State Fermentation (SSF) 5.3.3.1 Organisms Used for SSF 5.3.3.2 Diversity of SSF Applications to Valorize Waste and Biomass 5.3.4 Bio-Fertilizer Production 5.3.4.1 PGPR as Biofertilizer 5.3.4.1.1 Phytohormone Production through PGPR 5.3.4.2 Types of Biofertilizers 5.3.4.2.1 Encapsulated and Lyophilized Biofertilizers 5.3.4.2.2 Nano-Biofertilizer 5.3.4.2.3 Biofilm biofertilizer (BFBF) 5.3.5 Biofilm Technology 5.3.5.1 Benefits of Bacterial Biofilms 5.3.6 Aerobic Granular Sludge Technology 5.3.6.1 Formation of Aerobic Granules 5.3.6.2 Applications of Aerobic Granular Sludge Reactors 5.3.7 Biopolymer Technology 5.3.7.1 Classification of Biopolymers 5.3.7.2 Applications of Biopolymers 5.3.8 Electronic Waste (E-Waste) Management 5.3.8.1 Metallurgical Technologies to Treat E-Waste 5.3.8.1.1 Pyro-Metallurgical Processes 5.3.8.1.2 Hydrometallurgical Process 5.3.8.1.3 Biohydrometallurgical Processes to Treat E-Waste 5.3.8.1.4 Bioleaching of Metals from E-Waste References 6. Biosorption Technology 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Biosorption: A Green Option for Pollution Abatement 6.2.1 Biosorption Mechanisms 6.2.2 Factors Affecting Biosorption 6.3 Affinity Ligand-Based Technologies 6.4 Bioflocculation Technology 6.4.1 Mechanism of Bioflocculation 6.4.2 Measures of Bioflocculation 6.4.2.1 Flocculation Mediated by Plant-Based Product 6.4.2.2 Animal-Based Bioflocculants 6.4.2.3 Microbial Bioflocculation 6.4.2.3.1 Bacterial Flocculants 6.4.2.3.2 Flocculation Induced by Fungus 6.4.2.4 Autoflocculation 6.4.3 Bioflocculants' Applications 6.4.3.1 Biopharmaceuticals 6.4.3.2 Pulp and Paper Industry 6.4.3.3 Precious Metal Extraction 6.4.3.4 Production of Upstream Oil and Gas 6.5 Biocoagulation 6.6 Biosurfactants 6.6.1 Sources of Biosurfactants 6.6.1.1 Glycolipids 6.6.1.2 Lipopeptides and Lipoproteins 6.6.1.3 Surfactin 6.6.1.4 Lichenysin 6.6.1.5 Neutral Lipids, Phospholipids, and Fatty Acids 6.6.1.6 Polymeric Biosurfactants 6.6.2 Applications of Biosurfactants 6.6.2.1 Food Industries 6.6.2.2 Removal of Oil and Petroleum Contamination 6.6.2.3 Bioremediation of Toxic Pollutants 6.7 Biochar Technology 6.7.1 Role of Biochar in Soil Health Management 6.7.2 Effect of Biochar on Plant Growth and Soil Biota 6.7.3 Biochar: A Solution to Mitigate Climate Change References 7. Single-Cell Protein Technology 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Microorganisms for Single-Cell Protein 7.2.1 SCP from Algae 7.2.2 SCP from Fungi 7.2.3 SCP from Bacteria 7.3 Industrial Production of SCPs 7.3.1 Fermentation Strategies 7.3.1.1 Submerged Fermentation 7.3.1.2 Semisolid Fermentation 7.3.1.3 Solid-State Fermentation 7.4 Potential Feedstocks/Substrates for SCP Production 7.4.1 Industrial Wastes 7.4.1.1 Molasses 7.4.1.2 Dairy Waste 7.4.1.3 Fruit Waste (Simple Sugar Rich) 7.4.1.4 Starch Rich Sources and Bran 7.4.1.5 Soybean Meal 7.4.1.6 Methanol 7.4.2 Agricultural Wastes 7.5 SCP Production Process 7.5.1 Media Preparation 7.5.1.1 Media Preparation Using Fruit and Vegetable Wastes 7.5.1.2 Media Preparation Using Lignocellulose Wastes 7.5.1.3 Media Preparation Using Liquid Waste 7.5.2 Enrichment of the Media 7.5.3 Sterilization of Growth Media 7.5.4 Inoculum Isolation and Growing 7.5.5 Inoculation and Incubation 7.5.6 Harvesting and Protein Content Determination 7.5.7 Processing of SCP 7.6 Patented Technologies for Single-Cell Protein Production 7.6.1 The BEL Process 7.6.2 The Symba Process 7.6.3 Pekilo Process 7.6.4 Bioprotein Process 7.6.5 Pruteen Process 7.6.6 Quorn Production 7.6.7 The Waterloo Process 7.7 Safety of SCPs 7.8 Recovery of Other Value-Added Products During SCP Production 7.8.1 Production of Ethanol 7.8.2 Production of Hydrogen 7.8.3 Production of Methane 7.8.4 Production of Biodiesel 7.8.5 Production of Bioactive Compounds by Fermentation of Food Waste 7.9 Arena of SCP Applications 7.10 Benefits and Drawbacks of Single-Cell Protein 7.11 Challenges Ahead References 8. Bioenergy Production Technologies 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Fuel Cell Technology 8.2.1 Introduction 8.2.2 Principle 8.2.3 Microbial Resources 8.2.4 Electron Transfer Mechanism 8.2.5 Microbial Fuel Cell Designs 8.2.5.1 Single-Chamber MFCs (SCMFCs) 8.2.5.2 Double-Chamber MFC 8.2.5.3 Up-Flow Microbial Fuel Cell 8.2.5.4 Stacked Microbial Fuel Cell 8.2.5.5 Forced-Flow MFCs 8.2.6 Applications of Microbial Fuel Cells 8.2.7 Future Challenge 8.3 Biohydrogen Production 8.3.1 Biohydrogen Production Technologies 8.3.1.1 Dark/Anaerobic Fermentation 8.3.1.2 Bio-Photolysis 8.3.1.3 Photofermentation 8.3.1.4 Hybrid System 8.3.2 Limiting Factors in Biohydrogen Production Systems 8.3.3 Future Prospects 8.4 Microalgal Valorization Technology 8.4.1 Algal Strains, Cultivation, and Harvesting and Dewatering 8.4.2 Pretreatment of Microalgal Biomass 8.4.2.1 Physical Pretreatment 8.4.2.2 Chemical Pretreatment 8.4.2.3 Biological Pretreatment 8.4.2.4 Combined Pretreatment 8.4.3 Biological Hydrogen Production 8.4.3.1 Biohydrogen Production from Microalgal Biomass by Dark Fermentation 8.4.3.2 Biohydrogen Production from Microalgal Biomass by Photofermentation 8.4.3.3 Biohydrogen Production by Co-Digestion of Microalgal Biomass 8.4.4 Challenges and Future Prospects 8.5 Pelletization 8.5.1 Biomass Sources 8.5.2 Pelletization Process 8.5.3 Post-Pelletization Process (Thermal Conversion Modes) 8.6 Coal-Bed Methane Technology 8.6.1 CBM Reservoir Exploration and Geology 8.6.2 CBM Production Process 8.6.2.1 Adsorption Isotherms 8.6.2.2 Evaluation 8.6.2.3 Drilling 8.6.2.4 Coring 8.6.2.5 Hydraulic Fracturing 8.6.3 Enhancement Techniques 8.6.3.1 CO2 Injection 8.6.3.2 N2 Injection 8.6.3.3 N2 and CO2 Mixture 8.6.4 Microbially Enhanced Coalbed Methane (MECBM) 8.6.5 Limitations 8.7 Conclusion References 9. Nanobiotechnology: Concept and Scope for Wealth Generation 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Nanoparticles Synthesis 9.2.1 Bioresources for NP Synthesis 9.2.1.1 Food and Agro-Industrial Waste: A Source of Polyphenols 9.2.1.2 Forest and Garden Waste 9.2.1.3 Plants-Mediated NBPs 9.2.1.4 Bacteria-Assisted NPs 9.2.1.5 Fungi-Mediated NPs 9.2.1.6 Algae-Mediated NPs 9.3 Applications of Biogenic Nanoparticles 9.3.1 Medical Applications 9.3.2 Industrial Applications 9.3.3 Environmental Applications 9.3.4 Energy Production 9.3.5 Agricultural Applications 9.3.6 Food Processing and Safety 9.3.7 Electronics Field References 10. Hydrometallurgy and Biomining 10.1 Hydrometallurgy: Introduction 10.2 Hydrometallurgical Process 10.2.1 Types of Metal Leaching 10.2.1.1 Bioleaching 10.2.1.2 Chemical Leaching 10.2.1.2.1 Acid Leaching 10.2.1.2.2 Alkaline Leaching 10.2.1.2.3 Thiosulfate Leaching 10.2.1.2.4 Thiourea Leaching 10.2.1.2.5 Halide Leaching 10.2.1.2.6 Cyanide Leaching 10.2.2 Concentration and Purification of Metals 10.2.2.1 Solvent Extraction 10.2.2.2 Ion-Exchange 10.2.2.3 Adsorption 10.2.3 Metal Recovery 10.2.3.1 Electrodeposition 10.2.3.2 Precipitation 10.3 Recent Advances 10.4 Future Perspectives 10.5 Biomining: Introduction 10.6 Why Biomining? 10.7 Biomining Processes 10.7.1 Mechanisms of Biomining 10.7.1.1 Pyrite and Other Non-Acid-Soluble Metal Sulfides: Thiosulfate Pathway 10.7.1.2 Acid-Soluble Metal Sulfides: Polysulfide Pathway 10.7.2 Factors Affecting Biomining 10.8 Metals Recovered in Biomining Processes 10.8.1 Copper 10.8.2 Gold 10.8.3 Uranium 10.8.4 Biomining of Other Metals 10.9 Recent Developments in Biomining Technologies 10.9.1 Bioleaching at Low Redox Potentials 10.9.2 Bioreductive Dissolution of Minerals References 11. Constructed Wetlands and Microcosm Technology Constructed Wetlands 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Types of Constructed Wetlands 11.2.1 Constructed Wetlands with Free Water Surface 11.2.2 Constructed Wetlands with Horizontal Sub-Surface Flow 11.2.3 Constructed Wetlands with Vertical Sub-Surface Flow 11.2.4 Hybrid Constructed Wetlands 11.3 Sustainable Design and Operation of Constructed Wetlands 11.3.1 Constructed Wetland Vegetation 11.3.2 Constructed Wetland Substrate 11.3.3 Constructed Wetland Microorganisms 11.3.4 Constructed Wetland Design Criteria 11.3.4.1 Design Criteria for Free Water Surface Constructed Wetlands 11.3.4.1.1 Detention Time for BOD Removal 11.3.4.1.2 Aspect Ratio 11.3.4.1.3 Mosquito Control 11.3.4.1.4 Vegetation Harvesting 11.3.4.1.5 Design Criteria for Nutrient Removal 11.3.4.2 Design Criteria for Sub-Surface Flow Constructed Wetlands 11.3.4.2.1 Detention Time 11.3.4.2.2 BOD and Solids Loading Rates 11.3.4.2.3 Aspect Ratio 11.3.4.2.4 Design Criteria for Nutrient Removal 11.3.4.2.5 Media Depth and Size 11.4 Treated Wastewater Reuse Opportunities 11.4.1 Case Studies on Constructed Wetlands for Treated Wastewater Reuse 11.5 Guidelines for Decision Making in Constructing Wetlands 11.6 Challenges in Constructed Wetlands (CWS) 11.6.1 Environmental Impacts 11.6.1.1 Climate Change 11.6.1.2 Global Warming 11.6.2 The CWs Mosquito Outbreaks 11.6.3 Cyanobacterial Threat to CWs 11.6.4 CWs Operational Reassessment 11.7 The Current Scenario Microcosm Technology 11.8 Microcosms 11.9 Historical and Current Applications 11.10 Design Factors 11.10.1 Sourcing, Seeding, and Energy Matching 11.10.2 Spatial Scaling, Wall, and Isolation Effects 11.10.3 Temporal Scaling 11.10.4 Replication, Variability, and Divergence 11.11 Similarity to Natural Ecosystem References Part III: Holistic Approach for Waste Management and Bioproducts Recovery 12. Principles and Practices for Zero Waste Concept 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Zero Waste Concept 12.3 Key Factors for Zero Waste Development 12.3.1 Zero Waste Extraction and Process 12.3.2 Zero Waste Design and Production 12.3.3 Sustainable Consumption and Waste Generation 12.3.4 Zero Waste Management and Treatment 12.3.5 Zero Waste Regulatory Policies and Assessment 12.3.6 Overarching Guidelines for Strategic ZW Development 12.3.6.1 Zero Waste Certification 12.4 The Notion of the "Zero Waste City" 12.5 Decoupling and Improvement of Environmental Burdens 12.6 The Holistic Model of Zero Waste City 12.6.1 Extended Producer and Consumer Responsibilities 12.6.2 100% Recycling of Waste 12.6.3 100% Recovery of Resources from Waste References 13. Technology Integration for Zero Waste Production 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Integrated Approaches for Zero Waste 13.2.1 Agri- and Food Waste Valorization through the Production of Biochemicals and Packaging Materials 13.2.1.1 Food Waste-Based Biorefinery 13.2.1.2 Production of Bioenergy from Waste 13.2.1.2.1 Biodiesel Production 13.2.1.3 Production of Biodegradable Plastics 13.2.1.4 Production of Biopolymers from Waste 13.2.1.5 Bioprocesses for Bio-Lipids Synthesis 13.3 Enzyme Immobilization Technology 13.3.1 Carbohydrates 13.3.2 Polysaccharides 13.3.3 Lipids 13.3.4 Proteins 13.3.5 Bio-Based Chemicals 13.3.6 Sugars 13.3.7 Lignin 13.3.8 Acids 13.3.9 Polymer Substrates 13.4 Technology Integration for Zero Waste Generation from Pulp and Paper Industry References 14. Recovery of Byproducts and Other Value-Added Products from Waste 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Bio-Based Products for Sustainable Bioeconomy 14.2.1 Chemicals 14.2.2 Minerals and Nutrients 14.2.3 Proteins and Enzymes 14.2.4 Vermiwash and Biofertilizers 14.2.5 Food and Microbial Protein 14.2.6 Biopesticides 14.2.7 Biosurfactants 14.2.8 Bioplastic and Biopolymers 14.2.8.1 Starch-Based Plastics 14.2.8.2 Cellulose-Based Plastics 14.2.8.3 Biodegradable Plastic from Petrochemical Sources 14.2.8.4 PHA Production from Waste Streams of Different Industries 14.2.9 Bioenergy 14.2.10 Biochar References Index