Radiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine

Description

This book explains clearly and in detail all aspects of radiation protection in nuclear medicine, including measurement quantities and units, detectors and dosimeters, and radiation biology. Discussion of radiation doses to patients and to embryos, fetuses, and children forms a central part of the book. Phantom models, biokinetic models, calculations, and software solutions are all considered, and a further chapter is devoted to quality assurance and reference levels. Occupational exposure also receives detailed attention. Exposure resulting from the production, labeling, and injection of radiopharmaceuticals and from contact with patients is discussed and shielding calculations are explained. The book closes by considering exposure of the public and summarizing the "rules of thumb" for radiation protection in nuclear medicine. This is an ideal textbook for students and a ready source of useful information for nuclear medicine specialists and medical physics experts. Radiation Protectionin Nuclear Medicine Preface Contents Chapter 1: Introduction: The Importance of Radiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine 1.1 The Importance of Radiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine References Part I: Measurements Chapter 2: Dose Quantities and Units for Radiation Protection 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Basic Dosimetric Quantity 2.2.1 Absorbed Dose 2.3 Protection Quantities 2.3.1 Mean Absorbed Dose 2.3.2 Equivalent Dose: Dose Equivalent 2.3.3 Effective Dose 2.4 Operational Quantities 2.4.1 Ambient Dose Equivalent 2.4.2 The Directional Dose Equivalent 2.4.3 Personal Dose Equivalent 2.5 Relationship Between Quantities for Radiological Protection and Monitoring Purposes 2.5.1 Calibration Methods References Part II: Radiation Biology Chapter 3: Radiobiology for Radiation Protection 3.1 Radiation Interactions and Production of Free Radicals 3.2 DNA Damage and Repair 3.3 Chromosome Damage 3.4 Late Effects 3.5 Radiosensitivity and Cell Survival Curves 3.6 Acute Effects 3.7 Summary References Chapter 4: Radiobiology and Radiation Dosimetry for the Lens of the Eye 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Eye and Its Lens 4.3 Modeling of the Eye and Its Lens 4.4 Monte Carlo Calculations 4.5 Personal Dose Equivalent, Hp(d) 4.6 Photon Exposure of the Eye Lens 4.7 Electron Exposure of the Eye Lens References Part III: Radiation Dose Estimations Chapter 5: Radiation Exposure of the Embryo/Foetus and the Newborn Child 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Potential Effects of Radiation Exposures of Embryo and Foetus Exposures 5.2.1 The Development of Embryo and Foetus 5.2.2 Biological Effects of Prenatal Exposures 5.2.2.1 Effects for Exposures in Preimplantation Period 5.2.2.2 Effects for Exposures in Embryonic and Foetal Periods 5.2.2.3 Effects on Brain and Mental Development 5.2.2.4 Carcinogenic Risks and Hereditary Effects 5.2.3 Potential Effects in the Contest of Nuclear Medicine Procedures 5.3 Radiation Protection in Case of Pregnant Patient 5.3.1 Exposure of the Foetus 5.3.1.1 Dose Estimation to the Foetus 5.3.1.2 Foetal Thyroid Dose 5.3.2 Therapeutic Nuclear Medicine Procedures and Pregnancy 5.3.3 Foetal Unintentional Exposure 5.3.4 Volunteers in Biomedical Research 5.4 Radiation Protection in Case of Breastfeeding Patient 5.5 Attention to Female Workers and Members of the Public 5.5.1 Foetal Exposure for Non-patient Female in Pregnancy 5.5.2 Issues Concerning Female Workers 5.5.3 Issues Concerning Pregnant Family Members, Comforters and Caregivers 5.6 Additional Note References Part IV: Quality Assurance and Quality Control Chapter 6: Quality Control of Gamma Cameras, SPECT/CT and PET/CT Units 6.1 Quality Control of Nuclear Medicine Imaging Equipment 6.1.1 Background 6.1.2 Parameters Influencing the Image Quality 6.1.2.1 Uniformity 6.1.2.2 Energy Window 6.1.2.3 Spatial Resolution 6.1.2.4 Contrast 6.1.2.5 Spatial Linearity 6.1.2.6 Count Density in the Image 6.1.2.7 Image Processing 6.1.3 Guidelines 6.1.3.1 The National Electrical Manufacturers Association 6.1.3.2 International Electrotechnical Commission 6.1.3.3 International Atomic Energy Agency 6.1.3.4 European Association of Nuclear Medicine 6.1.3.5 CEC: Radiation Protection 91 (RP91), Will Soon Be Replaced by RP106 6.1.4 Types of Tests 6.1.4.1 Acceptance and Reference Tests 6.1.4.2 Routine Tests 6.2 Quality Control Program for a Gamma Camera 6.2.1 Daily 6.2.1.1 Energy Window 6.2.1.2 Flood-Field Uniformity 6.2.2 Weekly or Monthly 6.2.2.1 Flood-Field Uniformity Intrinsic or Extrinsic 6.2.2.2 Center of Rotation Offset and Alignment 6.2.2.3 System Sensitivity 6.2.2.4 Spatial Resolution and Spatial Linearity 6.2.3 Annually 6.2.3.1 Intrinsic Spatial Resolution and Spatial Linearity 6.2.3.2 Intrinsic Uniformity for Other Radionuclides 6.2.3.3 Tomographic Uniformity 6.2.3.4 Tomographic Resolution 6.2.3.5 Intrinsic Flood-Field Uniformity with Narrowed and Asymmetric Energy Window 6.2.3.6 Pixel Size 6.2.3.7 Overall System Performance 6.2.4 Acceptance and Reference Test 6.3 Quality Control of PET Cameras 6.3.1 Daily 6.3.2 Monthly or Quarterly 6.3.3 Annually 6.4 Quality Control of the CT Scanner 6.4.1 Daily 6.4.1.1 Tube Warm-Up 6.4.1.2 Calibration in Air 6.4.2 Monthly/Semiannually 6.4.2.1 CT Laser Alignment, Tabletop Alignment 6.4.2.2 Uniformity and Noise 6.4.2.3 Computed Tomography Number and Electron Density Accuracy 6.4.2.4 High-Contrast Modulation 6.4.3 Annually 6.4.3.1 Radiation Dose 6.4.3.2 Half-Value Layer 6.4.3.3 Z-Axis Characteristics References Part V: Occupational Exposure Chapter 7: Occupational Exposure: With Special Reference to Skin Doses in Hands and Fingers 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Occupational Monitoring: Basic Concepts, Regulation, and Practical Considerations 7.3 Finger Doses for NM Workers 7.3.1 Methodology 7.3.2 Results and Discussion 7.3.2.1 Hand Dose Distribution 7.3.2.2 Maximum Skin Dose to the Hands 7.3.2.3 Parameters of Influence on Skin Dose to the Hands 7.3.2.4 Routine Extremity Monitoring 7.4 Recommendations References Chapter 8: Radiation Doses from Patients to Staff Members, Comforters and Caregivers and to the General Population 8.1 Introduction 8.2 External Irradiation 8.2.1 Therapeutic Procedures 8.2.1.1 Doses to Hospital Staff 8.2.1.2 Doses to Comforters, Caregivers and Family Members 8.2.1.3 Doses to the General Public 8.2.2 Diagnostic Procedures 8.2.2.1 Doses to Hospital Staff 8.2.2.2 Doses to Caregivers and Family 8.3 Dose Assessment Methods 8.4 Calculation of External Dose 8.4.1 Duration of Exposure and Occupancy Factor 8.4.2 Distance and Attenuation 8.4.3 Time Dependence 8.4.3.1 Multi-component Calculations 8.4.3.2 Comparison with Measurements 8.4.4 Influence of Models and Assumptions on Calculated Dose 8.5 Internal Exposure 8.5.1 Contamination 8.5.2 Breastfeeding 8.6 Special Circumstances 8.6.1 Borders and Airports 8.6.2 Immediate Medical Interventions 8.6.3 Post-mortem Examinations and Burial References Chapter 9: Examples of Shielding Calculations for a PET/CT Installation 9.1 Introduction 9.2 PET/CT System 9.2.1 Annihilation Radiation Around the Scanner Room 9.2.2 CT Radiation Around the Scanner Room 9.2.2.1 Annihilation Radiation in and Around the Uptake Room 9.3 Scenarios 9.3.1 Scenario 1: Technologist Working at Desk 9.3.2 Scenario 2: Technologist Taking Care of Patient (Before 18F-FDG Administration) 9.3.3 Scenario 3: Staff on Floor Above and Below 9.4 Conclusion References Part VI: Exposure of the Public Chapter 10: Release of Patients After Radionuclide Therapy: Radionuclide Releases to the Environment from Hospitals and Patients 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Release of Patients After Radionuclide Therapy 10.2.1 Patient Travel 10.2.2 Immediate Medical Intervention, Postmortem Examinations, and Burial 10.3 Releases to the Environment 10.4 Summary References Part VII: Rules of Thumb for Radiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine Chapter 11: Rules of the Thumb and Practical Hints for Radiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Occupational Exposure in Nuclear Medicine 11.2.1 Basic Principles of Radiation Protection 11.2.1.1 Simple Approximative Relations 11.2.2 Shielding 11.2.3 Contamination 11.2.3.1 Some Basic Guidelines to Minimize the Exposure from Contamination 11.2.3.2 When a Contamination Occurs There Are Some Basic Advices to Follow 11.2.3.3 Rough Absorbed Dose Estimates 11.2.3.4 Shielding of Syringes and Radionuclide Solutions 11.2.4 External Exposure 11.2.4.1 Lead Apron or Not in Nuclear Medicine? 11.2.4.2 Occupational Exposure in Computed Tomography 11.2.4.3 Lead Apron or Not in CT? 11.3 Patient Exposure References Index