The Prehistory of Rapa Nui (Easter Island): Towards an Integrative Interdisciplinary Framework

Description

This book addresses the main enigmas of Easter Island’s (Rapa Nui, in the Polynesian language) prehistory from the time of initial settlement to European contact with a multidisciplinary perspective. The main topics include: (i) the time of first settlement and the origin of the first settlers; (ii) the main features of prehistoric Rapanui culture and their changes; (iii) the deforestation of the island and its timing and causes; (iv) the extinction of the indigenous biota, (v) the occurrence of climatic shifts and their potential effects on socioecological trends; (vi) the evidence for a cultural and demographic collapse before European contact; and (vii) the influence of Europeans on prehistoric Rapanui society. The book is subdivided into thematic sections and each chapter is written by renowned specialists in disciplines such as archaeology, anthropology, paleoecology, ethnography, linguistics, ethnobotany, phylogenetics/phylogeography and history. Contributors have been invited to provide an open and objective vision that includes as many views as possible on the topics considered. In this way, the readers may be able to compare different of points of view and make their own interpretations on each of the subjects considered. The book is intended for a wide audience including graduate students, advanced undergraduate students, university teachers and researchers interested in the subject. Given its multidisciplinary character and the topics included, the book is suitable for students and researchers from a wide range of disciplines and interests. Contents Contributors 1 Introduction 1 The Enigmas of Rapa Nui 2 Aims and Scope 3 Book Organization References Part I Transpacific Voyaging and Settlement 2 Ex Oriente Lux: Amerindian Seafaring and Easter Island Contact Revisited 1 Introduction 2 Amerindian Material Culture in Easter Island? 2.1 Ahu Vinapu 1 (Ahu Tahiri) 2.2 Tupa 2.3 Birdmen 2.4 Evaluation 3 Amerindian Voyaging to Easter Island? 3.1 Polynesian Voyaging 3.2 Amerindian Voyaging 3.3 Evaluation 4 Conclusions References 3 Commensals/Domesticates on Rapa Nui: What Can Their Phylogeographic Patterns Tell Us About the Discovery and Settlement of the Island? 1 Introduction 2 Banana (Musa sapientum L.)—futi 3 Bottle Gourds (Lagenaria siceraria) 4 Chickens (Gallus gallus) 5 Pacific Rat (Rattus exulans)—kiore 6 Paper Mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera)—tapa or kapa 7 Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) 8 Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas)—kumara 9 Taro (Colocasia esculenta) 10 Yams (Dioscorea spp.) 11 Conclusion References 4 Sweet Potato on Rapa Nui: Insights from a Monographic Study of the Genus Ipomoea 1 Introduction 2 Sweet Potato in Rapa Nui Literature 2.1 Eighteenth Century: First European Mentions 2.2 Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: Sweet Potato as a Staple 3 The Morning Glories of Rapa Nui 4 Sweet Potato in the Archaeological Record 5 Analysis of Archaeological Remains from a Botanical Perspective 5.1 Pollen Grains 5.2 Starch Grains 6 Sweet Potato Arrival in Rapa Nui References 5 Pre-European Contact Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas) at Rapa Nui: Macrobotanical Evidence from Recent Excavations in Rano Raraku Quarry, Rapa Nui 1 Introduction 2 Synopsis: Evidence of Rapa Nui kumara 2.1 Previous Archaeological Evidence 2.2 Ethnohistorical Observations 3 Rano [a] Raraku: The Statue Quarry 3.1 Physiography and Sculpture 3.2 Rock, Soils, and Fertility 4 Modern Site Environment Context 4.1 Previous Mapping and Excavations 4.2 Stratigraphy and Sampling 4.3 Identification of Ipomoea batatas 4.4 Radiocarbon Results 4.5 Curation 5 Rapa Nui and the Regional Context 6 Conclusions References 6 Anakena Re-visited: New Perspectives on Old Problems at Anakena, Rapa Nui 1 Introduction to the Problem 1.1 Chronology 1.2 Rapa Nui Ritual Space: Ahu/Moai Concept 2 Nau Nau East: An Early Ritual Space 2.1 Place 2.2 Time 2.3 Material Culture and Features 2.3.1 Crude Stone Image (for Location see Fig. 6.3) 2.3.2 Stone Construction/Demarcation (Feature 14, for Location seeFig. 6.3) 2.3.3 Postholes (Feature 21, 22, 23 and 15, for Location see Fig. 6.3) 2.3.4 Hearths (Feature 18 and 19, for Location see Fig. 6.3) 2.3.5 Refuse Pits (Feature 17, 20, 24 and 25, for Location see Fig. 6.3) 2.3.6 Grinding Residues/Special Activities, (for General Location seeFig. 6.3) 3 Spatial Analyses of Artifacts, Obsidian/Basalt Flaking and Bone Remains 4 A Reconstruction Model of the Ritual Space 5 A Spatial Model of Settlement and Ritual Activities at Anakena 5.1 Settlements 5.2 Ritual Spaces 6 Discussion and Conclusions References Part II The Ancient Rapanui Culture 7 A Behavioral Assessment of Refuge Caves (ana kionga) on Rapa Nui 1 Introduction 2 Archaeological Correlates of Refuge Caves 2.1 Samoa 3 Rapa Nui Cases 4 Site 6–58: A Coastal Cave 4.1 Stratigraphic Summary 5 The Chronology of Site 6–58 5.1 Radiocarbon Dating 5.2 Obsidian Hydration Dating 6 Analysis of Cultural Features 6.1 X-Ray Diffraction of the White Clay Floor 6.2 Petroglyphs 6.3 Lithic Reduction Analysis 7 Obsidian Tools 7.1 High-Magnification Use-Wear of Matā 8 Bone Tools 8.1 Needles 8.2 Fishhooks 9 Faunal Remains at Site 6–58 10 Discussion 11 Conclusions References 8 Vinapū Area Re-visited 1 Introduction 2 Earlier Investigations and Accounts 3 Mulloy's Investigation of the Ceremonial Sites in the Vinapū Area 3.1 Ahu Tahiri (ahu no. 1) 3.2 Ahu no. 2 3.3 The Elite Village no. 1 and an Isolated Tomb 4 Re-assessment of the Archaeological Sites in the Vinapū Area 4.1 Excavation in the Embankment 4.1.1 Trench 1 4.1.2 Trench 13 4.2 Excavations in Connection to the Embankment and Plaza of Ahu no. 2 4.3 Seward Side the ahu Structures 4.4 Excavations at Elite Village no. 1 4.4.1 Trench 7 4.4.2 Trench 8 4.5 Additional Excavations 5 Discussion of the Vinapū Excavations 5.1 Early Vinapū 5.2 Ahu/moai Construction and Use (AD 1300–1864) 5.2.1 AD 1300–1400 5.2.2 AD 1400–1600 5.2.3 AD 1600–1722 5.2.4 AD 1722–1864 References 9 Undelivered Moai or Unidentified Monument? 1 Introduction 2 Historical Testimonies 3 The Archaeological Data 3.1 Categories of Single Statues 3.2 Stade of Conservation of the 46 Moai Scattered Along the Paths 3.3 Pavements, Chocking Stones and Pits 3.4 Bevelled Eyes and Rock Art 4 A New Geomorphological Approach 4.1 Geomorphological Processes Acting on the Statues 4.2 Archaeological Consequences 5 Some Strange Ahu near the Antique Roads 6 Discussion 7 Conclusion References 10 Platforms in Motion: A Genealogical Architecture 1 Introduction 2 Sequences of ahu 3 The Dismantling of the Last Plaforms 4 Conclusion References Part III Climatic and Environmental Change 11 Climatology of Rapa Nui (Isla de Pascua, Easter Island) 1 Introduction 2 Large-Scale Circulation 3 The Climate of Rapa Nui 4 Interannual Variations References 12 Prehistoric Paleoecology of Easter Island 1 Introduction 2 Prehistoric Chronology 3 Paleoecological Archives 3.1 Sedimentary Basins 3.2 Other Archives 4 Historical Development of Paleoecological Studies 4.1 The Pioneer Phase 4.2 The Transitional Phase 4.3 The Revival Phase 4.3.1 Coring Intensification and Reanalysis 4.3.2 Publication Resurgence 5 Contributions of Paleoecology to the Reconstruction of Easter Island's Prehistory 5.1 Discovery and Settlement 5.2 Climatic Changes 5.3 Spatiotemporal Deforestation Patterns 5.4 Cultural Responses to Climatic Droughts 5.5 Toward an Integrated View References 13 Geological and Climatic Features, Processes and Interplay Determining the Human Occupation and Habitation of Easter Island 1 Introduction 2 Present and Past Climate in Easter Island and in the SE Pacific Region 3 The Volcanic Origin of the Easter Island 3.1 Formation and Age 3.2 The Geomorphological Evolution of the Island 3.3 Volcanic Eruptions and Their Rocks as a Resource for Settlers 4 Soils and Agriculture 4.1 Easter Island Soil Types 4.2 Edaphic Features, Soil Texture, Nutrients, and Composition 4.3 Soil Erosion Risk 4.4 Present and Past Cultivable Soils Distribution 4.5 Other Soil Uses 5 Wetlands and Climate Changes 5.1 Wetlands and Their Paleoenvironmental Significance 5.2 Climate Changes and Societal Changes in Polynesia and Easter Island from Wetlands Stratigraphic Record 6 Hydrogeology 6.1 The Nature of Easter Island Aquifers and Water Recharge 6.2 Conceptual Hydrogeological Model of Easter Island 6.3 Potential Changes in the Aquifer Recharge During Deforestation and Drought Periods in the Past 7 Tsunamis 7.1 Large Polynesian Tsunamis During Late Holocene 7.2 Tsunamis Evidence and Societal Effects in Easter Island 7.3 The Reach of Past and Present Meteotsunamis 8 Conclusions References Part IV Deforestation and Extinctions 14 The Flora and Vegetation of Easter Island: Past and Present 1 Introduction 2 The Present Flora of Easter Island 3 The Flora of Easter Island Before the Arrival of Humans 4 From Distribution to Biogeography and Ecoregions 5 Conclusion References 15 Palms for the Archaeologist 1 Introduction 2 Monocot/Dicot sensu lato (Including Early Angiosperms and Eudicots)/Gymnosperm 3 Structural Differences 4 Canoes? Rollers and Sledges? Lumber? 4.1 Canoes? 4.2 Rollers and Sledges? 4.3 Lumber? 5 Age, Dendrochronology, and 14C 6 Classical Taxonomy/Genomics 7 Conclusions References 16 Spatio-Temporal Patterns of Deforestation, Settlement, and Land Use on Easter Island Prior to European Arrivals 1 Introduction 2 The Model 2.1 Overview 2.2 Environment 2.2.1 Palm Trees 2.2.2 Sweet Potatoes 2.3 Agent Characteristics and Behaviour 2.3.1 Resource Requirement, Preference, and Harvest 2.3.2 Population Dynamics 2.3.3 Adaptation Mechanisms 2.4 Simulations and Sensitivity Analysis 3 Results 3.1 Scenarios 3.2 Sensitivity Analysis 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References 17 Economic Causes and Consequences of Deforestation on Easter Island 1 Introduction 2 The Easter Island Forest 3 Easter Island's Human Population 4 The Economy of Easter Island 4.1 Production Functions 4.2 Demand, Utility, and Well-being on Easter Island 4.3 Allocating Labor 5 Parameterizing and Simulating the Base Model 6 Alternatives 7 Economic Principles and Easter Island 8 Concluding Remarks References 18 Palm Forest to Gardens and Grassland: A Study of Environmental and Geomorphological Changes of the Te Niu, Rapa Nui Landscape 1 Introduction 2 Research Questions 3 Methods: Archeological Survey and Geoarcheological Study at Te Niu 4 Results: Archeology and Geomorphology Survey at Te Niu 4.1 Soil Geomorphology at Te Niu 4.2 Formation of Anthropogenic Soil Horizons at Te Niu—Anthrosols 4.3 Radiocarbon and Obisidian Hydration Dates Relating to Land Clearing and Human Activities at Te Niu 4.4 Summary of Results: Conversion of the Former Palm-dominated Woodland Ecosystem to Gardens 5 Discussion and Conclusions of the Te Niu Landscape Study References Part V Collapse or Resilience? 19 Environmental Change and Cultural Continuity: Extraordinary Achievements of the Rapanui Society after Deforestation 1 Introduction 2 Freshwater Resources and Freshwater Access on Rapa Nui: The Quebrada Vaipú 3 Monumental Installations at Ava Ranga Uka A Toroke Hau in the Quebrada Vaipú 4 The Stratigraphy of the Monumental Installations in the Central Area of ARUTH (T4) 5 The Stratigraphy of the Southern Embankment of the Monumental Installations of ARUTH (T7) 6 ARUTH as a Water Sanctuary 7 Post-deforestation Pigment Workshops on the Southern Slope of Maunga Terevaka 8 The Destruction of the Monumental Installations at ARUTH and the Spillage of the Pigment Workshops by a Flash Flood 9 Synthesis and Conclusions References 20 Ecology Limits Population, But Interaction with Culture Defines It: Carrying Capacity on Rapa Nui 1 Introduction 2 What Limits Polynesian Populations? 3 Carrying Capacity 4 Considering Human Welfare, a Rapa Nui Case Study 5 Modeling the Effects of Hunger on Rapa Nui Population 6 Comparing the Two Models 7 Living in a Variable World 8 Independent Estimates of Rapa Nui Population 9 Conclusions References 21 Population Principles, Climate Change, and the “Collapse” of the Rapa Nui Society 1 Introduction 2 Putting Rapa Nui Population Changes into the Test through the PDT Framework 3 The Dynamics of Rapa Nui People References 22 Claims and Evidence in the Population History of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) 1 Introduction 2 Claims of Pre-Contact Population Sizes 3 A Critical Review of the Evidence 3.1 Historic Observations 3.2 House Count Estimates 4 Resource-Based Estimates 4.1 Analyses of Summed Probability Distributions 4.2 Skeletal Age Distribution-Based Estimates 5 Conclusions References Part VI European Contact 23 The Human Giants of Easter Island (Rapa Nui) 1 Introduction: The Written Legacy of the Dutch Expedition to the Unknown Southland (1721–1722) 2 Excerpts from Two Accounts 3 Analysis of the Content 4 Explanatory Framework 5 Application to the Case 6 Outside of Reality? 7 Relevance for our Present-Day Debate References Part VII Synthesis 24 Towards a Holistic Approach to Easter Island's Prehistory 1 Introduction 2 Human Ecodynamics 2.1 Theoretical Foundations 2.2 The EHLFS Approach 2.3 Niche Construction 3 Development of Easter Island's Socioecosystem During the Last Millennium 3.1 State 1 (ca. 800–1175 CE) 3.2 State 2 (ca. 1175–1480 CE) 3.3 State 3 (ca. 1480–1570 CE) 3.4 State 4 (ca. 1570–1720 CE) 3.5 State 5 (ca. 1720–1800 CE) 3.6 State 6 (ca. 1800+ CE) 4 Summary 5 Final Remarks References