The Chemistry and Bioactive Components of Turmeric

Description

Turmeric is cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical regions around the world and used extensively as a colouring and flavouring agent. It is also one of the most popular medicinal herbs, with a wide range of pharmacological activities attributed mainly to curcuminoids and two related compounds, demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin. This book brings together the research carried out in the area of the constituents obtained from turmeric such as curcuminoid, volatile oil, proteins and carbohydrates and their medicinal, nutraceutical and cosmetic applications. It starts from the isolation of components from turmeric and summarizes the chemistry of isolated compounds, the synthetic methodology to prepare them, various formulations of important components of turmeric to enhance the bioavailability and their biological activity. It is a comprehensive treatment of this important spice appealing to researchers and professionals in natural products and nutraceuticals and food chemists. Cover The Chemistry and Bioactive Components of Turmeric Preface Contents Chapter 1 - Turmeric – The Miraculous Herb from Ancient India and its Historical Background 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Turmeric (Haridra) – in the Vedic Period 1.3 Haridra in Nighantus 1.4 Varieties of Haridra 1.5 Rasa Panchaka (Five Properties of Drug) of Haridra and its Therapeutic Effects 1.6 Haridra in Ayurveda Treatises – Charaka Samhitha, Ashtanga Hrudayam, Susrutha Samhitha and Sarngadhara Samhitha 1.7 The Drug Groups of Haridra 1.8 The Main Named Formulations of Haridra 1.9 Other Sources where Haridra is Mentioned in Ayurveda Treatises 1.10 Conclusion References Chapter 2 - Chemistry of Turmeric 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Conventional Stratification on Turmeric 2.3 Turmeric Oleoresin 2.4 Volatile Oil and/or Non- curcuminoid Component of Turmeric 2.5 Constituents and Structural Studies of Turmeric oil and/or Non- curcuminoids 2.6 Analysis of Turmeric Essential Oil and/or Non- curcuminoids 2.7 Biological Activities of Volatile and/or Non- curcuminoid Compounds of Turmeric 2.8 Non- volatile Components of Turmeric 2.8.1 Constituents and Structural Studies of Non- volatile Components of Turmeric 2.8.2 Analysis of Non- volatile Turmeric Compounds 2.9 Biological Activities of Non- volatile Compounds of Turmeric 2.10 Biosynthesis of Curcumin 2.11 Stability Studies of Curcumin 2.12 Conclusion References Chapter 3 - Geographical Variations of Turmeric and Curcumin 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Studies on the Variations of Curcumin Content 3.3 Studies on the Variation in Essential Oil Content 3.4 Genetic Variations and Environmental Factors on the Yield and Quality of Turmeric 3.4.1 Factors with the Curcumin Synthase (CURS) Gene 3.4.2 Genetic Diversity in Different Agro- climatic Regions 3.4.3 Effect of Agro- climatic Zones in a Single Cultivar 3.4.4 Effect of Agro- climatic Zones on Different Cultivars 3.5 Agricultural Study Patterns 3.5.1 Experiments by Greenhouse Studies 3.5.2 Field Trials 3.6 Molecular Markers' Studies 3.7 Different Techniques and Technologies Regarding Curcumin Content 3.8 Effect of Maturity in Curcumin Content 3.9 Studies on Growth, Yield and Quality Parameters with Agro- climatic Zones in India 3.10 Agricultural Practices and Processing Methods 3.11 Conclusions References Chapter 4 - Turmeric – Active Ingredients Other than Curcuminoids 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Chemical Composition of Turmeric 4.2.2 Terpenes 4.2.3 Flavonoids 4.3 Other Important Components in Turmeric 4.3.1 Polysaccharides 4.3.2 Starch 4.3.3 Dietary Fiber 4.3.4 Cellulose 4.3.5 Pectin 4.3.6 Turmeric Protein 4.4 Biological Activities of the Active Ingredients of Turmeric 4.5 Conclusion Acknowledgements References Chapter 5 - Curcuminoids – Isolation, Formulations and Bioavailability Problems 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Discovery of Curcumin 5.3 Isolation of Curcumin 5.4 Physical, Chemical and Molecular Properties of Curcuminoids 5.5 Why are Formulations Needed for Curcumin 5.6 Different Formulations 5.6.1 Adjuvants for Bioavailability Enhancement 5.6.2 Enhancement through Nanotechnology 5.6.3 Micronized Formulations 5.6.4 Encapsulation 5.6.5 Curcumin Formulations Incorporating Lipid Matrices 5.6.5.1 Micellar Formulations 5.6.5.2 Phospholipid Formulations 5.6.6 Reconstitution with Non- curcuminoids 5.6.7 Complete Natural Turmeric Matrix 5.7 The Narrative of Bioavailability 5.8 Conclusion References Chapter 6 - Curcumin Pharmacokinetics and Plasma Determination 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Curcumin Metabolism 6.3 Hydrolysis vs. No Hydrolysis of Plasma Samples 6.4 Pharmacokinetic Studies 6.5 Discussion 6.6 Conclusions Acknowledgements References Chapter 7 - Curcumin: A Potential Molecule for the Prevention and Treatment of Inflammatory Diseases 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Molecular Targets of Curcumin in Inflammation 7.3 Curcumin for the Treatment of Inflammatory Diseases 7.4 Curcumin and Inflammatory Diseases: Clinical Trials 7.4.1 Allergic Rhinitis 7.4.2 Asthma 7.4.3 Chronic Gastritis 7.4.4 Chronic Kidney Disease 7.4.5 Chronic Prostatitis 7.4.6 Gingivitis 7.4.7 Inflammatory Bowel Disease 7.4.8 Nephritis 7.4.9 Oral Lichen Planus 7.4.10 Oral Mucositis 7.4.11 Oral Submucous Fibrosis 7.4.12 Osteoarthritis 7.4.13 Peptic Ulcer 7.4.14 Periodontitis 7.4.15 Rheumatoid Arthritis 7.4.16 Tropical Pancreatitis 7.4.17 Ulcerative Proctitis 7.4.18 Uveitis 7.5 Conclusion Conflict of Interest References Chapter 8 - Biological Activities of Curcuminoids 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Composition of Turmeric 8.2.1 Chemical Composition of Turmeric and Their Natural Analogues 8.2.2 Essential Oil Composition in Turmeric 8.2.3 Curcuminoids 8.2.4 Antioxidant Activity of Curcuminoids 8.3 Pharmacological Activities of Curcuminoids 8.3.1 Anti- inflammatory 8.3.2 Neuroprotective 8.3.3 Antidiabetic 8.3.4 Anticancer 8.3.5 Cardioprotective 8.4 Conclusions Acknowledgements References Chapter 9 - Biosynthesis of Curcumin and Molecular Targets and the Biological Mechanism of Curcumin 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Biosynthesis of Curcumin 9.2.1 Natural Pathway of Curcumin Biosynthesis in C. longa 9.2.2 Artificial Pathways of Curcuminoid Biosynthesis in Recombinant E. coli 9.2.2.1 Biosynthesis of Curcuminoids from O. sativa 9.2.2.2 Production of Curcuminoids by Recombinant E. coli 9.2.2.3 Production of Curcumin from Rice Bran Pitch by Recombinant E. coli 9.3 Biological Mechanism of Curcumin and Molecular Targets 9.3.1 Pro- angiogenic Factors 9.3.2 Cell Cycle Regulators 9.3.3 Metastasis and Transcription Factors 9.3.4 Proteins Kinases 9.3.4.1 p53 9.3.4.2 SIRT 9.3.5 miRNA 9.3.6 DNA 9.3.7 Cellular Death 9.3.7.1 Apoptosis 9.3.7.2 Autophagy 9.4 Conclusion References Chapter 10 - The Effect of Turmeric in Gut Diseases 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Importance of Turmeric and Its Active Constituent Curcumin 10.3 Mechanism of Action of CUR Against Gut Diseases 10.3.1 Inhibition of Transcription Factor NF-­ᴋB Activation and IᴋB Phosphorylation 10.3.2 Inhibition of Nitric Oxide Production 10.3.3 Inhibition of COX- 10.3.4 Inhibition of Cytokines 10.3.4.1 Inhibition of IFNγ and TNFα 10.3.4.2 Regulating Shift of TH1/TH2 10.4 Clinical Trials and Studies Conducted on CUR 10.5 Pharmaceutical Formulations of CUR 10.6 Conclusion Acknowledgements References Chapter 11 - Molecular Docking Studies of Curcumin 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Molecular Properties of Curcumin 11.3 Interaction and Binding Mechanism of Curcumin 11.4 Molecular Docking Studies of Curcumin 11.5 Molecular Docking Studies of Curcumin Analogs 11.6 Conclusion References Chapter 12 - Biological Activities of Non- curcuminoids 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Non- curcuminoid in Turmeric 12.3 Anticancer Effects of C. longa STs 12.3.2 Cytotoxic and Anti- tumour Effect of Elemene- type of C. longa ST 12.3.2.1 Bone Cancer 12.3.2.2 Brain Cancer 12.3.2.3 Breast Cancer 12.3.2.4 Lung Cancer 12.3.2.5 Stomach Cancer 12.3.2.6 Other Types of Cancer 12.3.3 Cytotoxic and Anti- tumour Effect of Germacrane- type of C. longa STs 12.3.3.1 Breast Cancer 12.3.3.2 Other Types of Cancer 12.3.4 Cytotoxic and Anti- tumour Effect of Guaiane and Other Types of C. longa STs 12.3.5 Synergistic Effect of C. longa STs with Other Cancer Treatments 12.3.6 Current Progress of the Clinical Trial of C. longa STs 12.3.7 Limitations of the Current Anticancer Studies of C. longa STs 12.4 Immunomodulation Effect of C. longa STs 12.5 Hepatoprotective Activity of C. longa STs 12.6 Neuroprotective Effect of C. longa STs 12.7 Analgesic/Depressive Activity of C. longa STs 12.8 Cardioprotective Activity of C. longa STs 12.9 Other Bioactivities of C. longa STs 12.10 Other Non- curcuminoids and their Bioactivities 12.11 Conclusion References Chapter 13 - Toxicology Aspects of Turmeric 13.1 Turmeric and Toxicology: An Overview 13.2 Factors Affecting the Toxicological Aspects of Turmeric 13.2.1 Interactions of Turmeric as a Therapeutic Adjuvant 13.2.1.1 Turmeric–Drug–Disease–Herb–Food Interactions 13.3 Marketed Turmeric Formulations and Toxicological Aspects 13.4 Methods for Early Prediction of Toxicity 13.4.1 Chemoinformatics 13.4.2 Ayur- informatics 13.5 Management of Turmeric Toxicity 13.5.1 Traditional Methods to Ensure the Safety of Turmeric and Its Formulations 13.6 Turmeric – Hype or Hope 13.7 Limitations and Future Perspective 13.8 Discussion and Conclusion Conflict of Interest Acknowledgements References Chapter 14 - Production, Economics and Marketing of Turmeric 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Production of Turmeric 14.2.1 Global Scenario 14.2.2 Indian Scenario 14.3 Varieties of Turmeric 14.4 State- wise Production 14.4.1 Telangana 14.4.2 Maharashtra 14.4.3 Other States 14.5 Economics, Factors and Trends in Turmeric Production 14.5.1 Economics of Turmeric Production 14.5.2 Constraints for Turmeric Production 14.5.3 Trend in Turmeric Production 14.6 Marketing 14.6.1 Products of Commercial Importance 14.6.2 Organic Turmeric 14.6.3 Fresh Rhizome 14.6.4 Dried Rhizome 14.6.5 Turmeric Oleoresin/Oil 14.6.6 Turmeric Oil 14.6.7 Curcumin 95% 14.6.8 Bioavailable Curcuminoids 14.6.9 Encapsulated Products 14.6.10 Value- added Products 14.6.11 Turmeric and Ayurveda 14.7 Export and Import Scenario 14.7.1 Factors Dominating the Trade/export 14.7.2 Export Market 14.7.3 Import 14.8 Market Structure 14.9 Marketing Prospects 14.10 Risks and Uncertainty 14.11 Conclusion References Chapter 15 - Nanodrug Delivery Formulations for Curcumin Absorption 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Nanotechnology Approaches to Overcome Curcumin's Inherent Constraints 15.3 Curcumin Nanoformulations 15.3.1 Lipid- based Nanoformulations 15.3.1.1 Liposomes 15.3.1.2 Solid Lipids Nanoparticles (SLNs) 15.3.2 Polymeric Nanostructures 15.3.2.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles 15.3.2.2 Polymeric Micelles 15.3.2.3 Polymeric Nanofibers 15.3.3 Conjugates 15.3.4 Peptide/Protein Carriers 15.3.5 Cyclodextrins 15.3.6 Metallic Nanoparticles 15.3.6.1 Gold Nanoparticles 15.3.6.2 Silver Nanoparticles 15.3.6.3 Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 15.4 Conclusions and Prospects References Chapter 16 - Curcumin as Dietary Supplements Against Various Diseases: An Insight into the New Trends and Future Perspectives 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Oral Delivery of Curcumin Supplements – An ‘Achilles’ Heel’ 16.2.1 Cardiovascular Diseases 16.2.2 Neurodegenerative Disorders 16.2.3 Growth and Hormones 16.2.4 Bacterial and Viral Infection 16.2.5 Diabetes 16.2.6 Bone Health 16.2.7 Gastrointestinal Diseases 16.3 Encapsulation – A Benignant Revelation for Curcumin Supplements 16.3.1 Food- grade Carrier Agent 16.3.2 Advanced Techniques 16.3.3 Novel Curcumin Encapsulates 16.4 Imminent Curcumin Encapsulated Supplements 16.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives Conflict of Interest Acknowledgements References Subject Index