Cereal Diseases: Nanobiotechnological Approaches for Diagnosis and Management

Description

New ways to improve cereal crops against fungal, bacterial, and viral diseases are covered in this book that was put together by a group of experts. These include genetics, genome editing systems, and nano-biotechnological tools. Cereal crops are mainly the world's leading food crops and feed a large share of the world population. However, external factors, such as pathogens, have often threatened their productivity. Like wheat, rice, maize, oats, barley, millet and storage, etiology, epidemiology, and diseases in cereal crop management. In addition, the importance of crop genetics and genomics in combating pathogens has been discussed. This book offers up-to-date information on new methods, such as the potential of the genome editing system for crop improvement, in particular the CRISPR-Cas system. The current volume also talks about identification, plant breeding, genome editing, and nanotechnology tools that can be used to fight disease in cereal crops. This book is good for students, teachers, and researchers who study biotic stress in cereals, as well as scientists who study nanotechnology, disease resistance, pathogen biology, genome editing, agriculture sciences, and future biotechnology. Contents About the Editors Part I: Identification and Diagnosis 1: An Introduction to Rice Diseases 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Fungal Diseases in Rice 1.3 Bacterial Diseases in Rice 1.4 Virus Diseases in Rice 1.5 Nematode Diseases in Rice 1.6 Conclusion References 2: Bacterial Disease of Rice 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Rice Leaf Blight Disease 2.2.1 Disease Development 2.2.1.1 Leaf Blight Phase 2.2.1.2 Kresek Phase 2.2.2 Rice Bacterial Leaf Blight Management 2.2.3 Chemical Management 2.3 Bacterial Leaf Streak 2.3.1 Disease Development 2.3.2 Management of Bacterial Leaf Streak 2.3.3 Chemical Management 2.4 Bacterial Panicle Blight Disease 2.4.1 Disease Development 2.4.2 Management of Bacterial Panicle Blight Disease 2.4.3 Chemical Management 2.4.4 Molecular Diagnosis of Bacterial Disease of Rice Disease 2.4.4.1 Sample Collection 2.4.4.2 Bacterial DNA Isolation 2.5 Conclusion References 3: Viral Diseases of Rice 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Black-Streaked Dwarf Virus 3.2.1 Taxonomic Position and Nucleotide Sequence 3.2.2 Particle Morphology of the Causal Virus 3.2.3 Purification 3.2.4 Disease Symptoms 3.2.5 Diagnostic Techniques 3.2.6 Control/Management of the Disease 3.2.7 Economic Significance 3.2.8 Host Range and Transmission 3.3 Rice Yellow Mottle Virus 3.3.1 Taxonomic Tree 3.3.2 Nucleotide Sequence 3.3.3 Economic Significance 3.3.4 Disease Symptoms 3.3.5 Host Range 3.3.6 Transmission 3.3.7 Purification 3.3.8 Diagnostic Techniques 3.3.9 Particle Morphology of the Causal Virus 3.3.10 Geographic Distribution, Epidemiology, and Yield Losses 3.3.11 Control/Management of the Disease 3.3.11.1 Prevention 3.3.11.2 Chemical Control 3.4 Rice Tungro Disease 3.4.1 Taxonomic Position and Nucleotide Sequence 3.4.1.1 Taxonomic Tree 3.4.1.2 Nucleotide Sequence 3.4.2 Disease Symptoms 3.4.3 Host Range 3.4.4 Transmission 3.4.5 Purification 3.4.6 Diagnostic Techniques 3.4.7 Particle Morphology of the Causal Virus 3.4.8 Geographic Distribution, Epidemiology, and Yield Losses 3.4.9 Control/Management of the Disease 3.4.9.1 Cultural Control/ Biological Control 3.4.9.2 Chemical Control 3.5 Rice Dwarf Virus 3.5.1 Particle Morphology of the Causal Virus 3.5.2 Taxonomic Position and Nucleotide Sequence 3.5.3 Purification 3.5.4 Geographic Distribution, Epidemiology, and Yield 3.5.5 Control/Management of the Disease 3.5.6 Disease Symptoms 3.5.7 Host Range 3.5.8 Transmission 3.5.9 Diagnostic Techniques 3.6 CRISPR and RNAi Tools for Managing Rice Virus Diseases 3.7 Conclusion References 4: Etiology, Epidemiology, and Management of Maize Diseases 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Etiology of Different Maize Diseases 4.2.1 Bacterial Diseases 4.2.2 Fungal Diseases 4.2.3 Parasitic Diseases 4.2.4 Viral Diseases 4.3 Management of Maize Diseases 4.3.1 Prevention 4.3.2 Therapy 4.3.3 Other Principles 4.3.4 Studies on Cultural Control 4.3.4.1 Tillage Techniques 4.3.4.2 Agronomic Practices 4.3.5 Cultural Control of Various Maize Diseases 4.3.6 Biological Control 4.3.6.1 Biocontrol of Seed-Borne Fungi Via Actinomycetes 4.3.6.2 Biocontrol of Southern Corn Leaf Blight (SCLB) Via Trichoderma Species 4.3.6.3 Bacillus Species as a Biocontrol Agent Against Fusarium 4.3.6.4 Use of Biopesticides Against Maize Disease 4.3.7 Chemical Control 4.3.7.1 Spraying 4.3.7.2 Chemical Treatment of Seeds 4.3.7.3 Chemical Control for Various Maize Diseases 4.3.7.3.1 Chemical Control for the Downy Mildew of Maize 4.3.7.3.2 Chemical Control of Corn Eyespot 4.3.7.3.3 Chemical Control for Grey Leaf Spot of Corn 4.3.7.3.4 Chemical Control of Northern Corn Leaf Blight (NCLB) 4.3.7.3.5 Chemical Control of Stewart Bacterial Wilt 4.3.7.3.6 Chemical Control for Corn Smut 4.3.7.3.7 Chemical Protection Against Maize Late Wilt 4.3.7.3.8 Chemical Control for Southern Corn Blight (SCLB) 4.3.7.4 Biotechnological Measures 4.3.7.4.1 Advances in Genetic Engineering Against Maize Diseases RNA Interference Is Being Used to Combat Maize Pathogens Pathogen´s Counterstrategies Against Plants´ Defence Mechanism Targeting Genes Against Mycotoxins Produced by Fungi Use of Host-Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS) in Maize Use of CRISPR-Cas Against Maize Lethal Necrosis (MLN) Use of Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reactions (qPCR) to Identify Resistant Genes Resistance Breeding Against Various Maize Diseases 4.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects References 5: Viral Diseases of Maize 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Maize Streak Virus (MSV) 5.2.1 Transmission 5.2.2 Symptoms 5.2.3 Control 5.3 Dwarf Mosaic Virus of Maize (MDMV) 5.3.1 Host Range 5.3.2 Transmission 5.3.3 Symptoms 5.3.4 Control 5.4 Maize Stripe Virus 5.4.1 Host Range 5.4.2 Transmission 5.4.3 Symptoms 5.4.4 Control 5.5 Maize Lethal Necrosis (MLN) 5.5.1 Host Range 5.5.2 Transmission 5.5.3 Symptoms 5.5.4 Control 5.6 Maize Virus Diseases: Genome Tools 5.7 Conclusion References 6: Barley Diseases: Introduction, Etiology, Epidemiology, and Their Management 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Barley Diseases and Their Managements 6.2.1 Leaf Rust Disease 6.2.2 Net Blotch Disease 6.2.3 Powdery Mildew 6.2.4 Barley Yellow Dwarf 6.2.5 Barley Smut 6.2.6 Spot Blotch 6.2.7 Molya Disease 6.2.8 Barley Diseases Control Using Fungicides 6.3 Nano Diagnostics for Barley Infections 6.3.1 Nano Diagnostic Kits for Barley Mycotoxins 6.4 Effect of Metallic Oxide Nanoparticulates on the Barley Varieties 6.4.1 Barley Morphology and Seedlings Germination 6.4.2 Barley Genotoxicity 6.5 Effect of Metallic Nanoparticles on the Barley Diseases, Seed Germination, Root, and Shoot System 6.5.1 Selenium Nanoparticles (SeNPs) 6.5.2 Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) 6.5.3 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) 6.6 Conclusion References Part II: Plant Breeding and Diseases Management 7: Identification of a New Susceptibility Gene and Its Role in Plant Immunity 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Difference 7.1.2 Virus Susceptibility Is Determined by Host Factors 7.1.3 Alleles Associated with Host Susceptibility 7.1.4 Susceptibility Genes Have Many Different Types 7.1.5 A Warm Welcome to S Genes That Allow Basic Compatibility 7.1.6 Structure of the Cuticle or Cell Wall 7.1.7 Stomata Serve as Entrance Points 7.1.8 Immune Suppressor-Producing S Genes 7.1.9 Maintaining a Healthy Amount of Salicylic Acid 7.1.10 Susceptible Genes Ensure Long-Term Compatibility 7.2 Role of Susceptibility Gene in Plants 7.2.1 Host Susceptibility Gene (HIPP27) in Arabidopsis 7.2.2 The Jasmonate Response´s Impact on Plant Susceptibility 7.2.3 The Function and Control of Programmed Cell Death in Plant-Pathogen Interactions 7.2.4 Targeting Susceptibility with Genome Editing Plant Disease Resistance Genes 7.3 Identification of Susceptible Gene 7.3.1 Identification of Susceptibility Gene for Antibiotic Sensitivity 7.3.2 Function of Susceptibility Gene 7.4 S Gene Is More Durable than R Gene References 8: Breeding Strategies for Developing Disease-Resistant Wheat: Present, Past, and Future 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Disease´s Epidemics and Their Impact on Productivity 8.3 Genepools Contribution in Disease Management 8.4 New Breeding Tools to Attain Higher Disease Resistance 8.4.1 Pathogen-Resistant Germplasm 8.4.2 Identifying New R Genes Using High-Throughput Genomic Approaches 8.4.3 Expanding NLR Recognition Specificity Through BSR Genes Engineering 8.4.4 GWAS: A Step Ahead Toward Wheat Breeding 8.4.5 Speed Breeding 8.4.6 Genome Editing (GE) 8.4.7 RNA Interface (RNAi) Silencing 8.4.8 CRISPR/Cas9 and Disease Resistance: A Way Forward to More Reliability 8.5 Concluding Remarks References 9: Potential Breeding Strategies for Developing Disease-Resistant Barley: Progress, Challenges, and Applications 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Major Diseases of Barley 9.2.1 Powdery Mildew 9.2.2 Rusts 9.2.2.1 Black Stem Rust 9.2.2.2 Crown Rust 9.2.2.3 Yellow (Stripe) Rust 9.2.2.4 Leaf (Brown) Rust 9.2.3 Spot Blotch 9.2.4 Stripe Disease 9.2.5 Net Blotch 9.2.6 Smut Diseases 9.2.6.1 Loose Smut 9.2.6.2 Covered Smut 9.2.7 Barley Yellow Dwarf Disease 9.3 Sources of Disease-Resistant Genes 9.4 Breeding Approaches for Disease Resistance 9.5 Molecular Breeding Approaches for Disease Resistance 9.6 Conclusion References 10: Economic and Eco-friendly Alternatives for the Efficient and Safe Management of Wheat Diseases 10.1 Introduction 10.2 The Well-Reported Eco-friendly Approaches Used in Wheat Disease Management 10.2.1 Applying of Biogenic Nanoparticles 10.2.2 Harnessing of Beneficial Microorganisms (Biological Control) 10.2.3 Applying of Plant Extracts 10.2.4 Cultivar Mixtures for Wheat Disease Management 10.2.5 Estimation of Plant Resistance Inducers´ Mitigating Effect Against Wheat Phytopathogens 10.2.6 Biofumigation for the Safe Management of Wheat Diseases 10.3 Conclusions and Prospects for the Future References Part III: Genome Editing 11: Resistance Gene Identification, Cloning, and Characterization in Plants 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Identification of Resistant Genes for Plant Diseases 11.3 Mechanism of Resistance Gene 11.3.1 Different Identified R Genes and Their Resistance Mechanisms 11.4 Genetics of Resistance 11.4.1 Race-Specific or Vertical Disease Resistance 11.4.2 Non-race-Specific or Horizontal Disease Resistance 11.5 Gene Cloning 11.5.1 MutMap Technique 11.6 Resistance Gene Analogs (RGA) Identification and Characterization Through In Silico Analysis 11.6.1 Characterization of RGAs 11.7 Conclusion References 12: The Role of Genetic, Genomic, and Breeding Approaches in the Fight Against Fungal Diseases in Wheat 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Conventional Breeding and Factors Affecting Disease Resistance 12.3 Role of Genomics in Wheat Breeding to Combat Fungal Threats 12.4 Role of Genetics in Fungal Disease Management 12.4.1 Speed Breeding 12.4.2 MAS 12.4.3 RNAi (RNA Interference) 12.4.4 Genome Editing 12.5 Concluding Remarks References 13: Disease Resistance Genes´ Identification, Cloning, and Characterization in Plants 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Resistance Genes 13.3 NBS-LRR Class of R Genes in Plants 13.4 Resistance Gene Analogs (RGAs) 13.5 Resistance Genes in Cereals 13.6 Resistance Genes´ Identification, Cloning, and Characterization 13.7 Conclusion References 14: Utilization of Biosensors in the Identification of Bacterial Diseases in Maize 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Biosensors 14.3 Mechanism of Biosensors 14.4 Biosensor Types 14.4.1 Enzymatic Biosensors 14.4.2 Chemical Biosensors 14.4.3 Biological Sensors 14.4.4 Mass Biosensors 14.5 Biosensors to Detect Pathogens 14.5.1 Biosensor Applications in Zea mays 14.5.1.1 Bacterial Detection Biosensors in Maize 14.6 Nanosensors 14.7 Nanobiosensors 14.8 Carbon Nanotubes 14.9 Conclusions References Part IV: Nanobiotechnology 15: Nanomaterials for Integrated Crop Disease Management 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Nanoparticles: Types, Synthesis, and Classification 15.3 Cereal Disease and NPs Interaction 15.3.1 Nano-pesticide 15.3.2 Nano-fertilizers 15.4 Bioavailability, Concentration, and Toxicity of the Nanoparticles 15.5 Fate and Safety Aspects of Nanoparticles 15.6 Conclusion References 16: Metallic Nanoparticles and Nano-Based Bioactive Formulations as Nano-Fungicides for Sustainable Disease Management in Cere... 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Cu Nanoparticles (Cu-NPs) Fungicides Against Fusarium 16.2.1 Synthesis and Characterization of Copper Nanoparticles 16.2.2 Antifungal Activity of Cu-NPs Toward Fusarium 16.3 Iron Nanoparticle Biofabrication and Fungicidal Properties 16.3.1 Plant Extracts Are Used to Produce Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 16.3.1.1 FeNPs Characterization 16.4 Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles 16.4.1 Biomaterial Preparation 16.4.2 Phytosynthesis of Zinc Nanoparticles 16.4.3 Formation of Zinc Nanoparticles 16.4.4 Characterization of ZnNPs 16.4.5 Antifungal Activity of ZnONPs 16.4.5.1 Fungi Treated with Zinc Nanoparticles Under Microscope 16.4.5.2 Effects of ZnONPs on Fungal Mycelia as Examined by SEM 16.5 Metallic MgO Nanoparticles 16.5.1 Synthesis of MgONPs 16.5.2 Characterization of MgO Nanoparticles 16.5.3 Fungitoxic Mechanism of MgO Nanomaterials 16.5.4 Repression of Conidial Spore Germination and Sporangium Formation 16.5.5 Direct Physical Connection of Nanoparticles with Fungal Cells 16.5.6 Membrane Destabilization in Fungal Cells 16.6 Fungal Cells´ Oxidative Stress Responding 16.7 Bimetallic Nanoparticles: Flow Synthesis and Fungicidal Activity 16.8 Pectinase-Responsive Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticle Carriers (MSNPs) 16.8.1 Pro@MSN-Pec Synthesis and Characterization 16.8.2 Pro@MSN-Pec Fungicidal Activity 16.8.3 MSNPs Translocation in Rice Plants 16.8.4 Pro Distribution in Rice Plants 16.8.5 Pro Residues in Various Sections of Rice or Soil Below Field Conditions 16.9 Conclusion References 17: Applications of Nano-Biotechnological Approaches in Diagnosis and Protection of Wheat Diseases 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Nano-Biotechnology Concept and Advancement 17.2.1 Types of Nanoparticles 17.2.2 Nano-Biotechnology: Potential Roles in Wheat Diseases Management 17.3 Nano-Biotechnological Approaches for Diagnosis of Wheat Diseases 17.3.1 Quantum Dot Nanoparticles-Based Approach 17.3.2 Metal Nanoparticles-Based Approach 17.3.3 Nano-Structured Platforms-Based Approach 17.3.4 Nanofabrication Imaging Approach 17.3.5 Nano-Biosensor Based Approach 17.3.6 Nano-Diagnostic Kit-Based Approach 17.4 Protection/Management of Wheat Diseases Through Nano-Biotechnological Approaches 17.4.1 Nanoparticles: Relocation in Wheat Plants 17.4.2 Nanoparticles Towards Protection of Wheat Diseases 17.5 Adverse Effects of Nanomaterials 17.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References 18: Nanomaterials for the Reduction of Mycotoxins in Cereals 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Cereals 18.3 Toxicities of Mycotoxins in Human Organism 18.4 Conventional Methods of Managing Mycotoxins in Cereals 18.4.1 Biological Methods 18.4.2 Chemical Methods 18.4.3 Physical Methods 18.5 Nanomaterials as Mycotoxin Detoxification Tools in Cereals 18.5.1 Detoxification by Targeting Mycotoxinogenic Molds or Adsorption of Mycotoxins 18.5.2 Detoxification of Mycotoxins by Photocatalysis 18.6 Factors Affecting Mycotoxin Detoxification by NMs 18.6.1 Effect of Temperature 18.6.2 Effect of the Nature of the NMs and Their Quantity 18.6.3 Effect of UV Irradiation 18.6.4 Effect of Initial Mycotoxin Concentration 18.6.5 Effect of pH 18.6.6 Effect of Reaction Time 18.7 Conclusion References