Standard Handbook for Aerospace Engineers

Description

Title Page......Page 2 Copyright Page......Page 4 Contents......Page 6 Contributors......Page 22 Preface to the Second Edition......Page 28 Preface to the First Edition......Page 30 1.1 Potential Impacts of Global Technology and Resultant Economic Context on Aerospace Going Forward......Page 32 1.2 Civilian Aeronautical Futures......Page 34 1.3 Military Aeronautics Futures......Page 38 1.4 Futures of Space Access......Page 42 1.5 Aerospace beyond LEO......Page 46 Bibliography......Page 49 2.1 Introduction......Page 51 2.2 Air Conditioning (ATA 21)......Page 78 2.3 Electrical Power (ATA 24)......Page 90 2.4 Equipment/Furnishings (ATA 25)......Page 105 2.5 Fire Protection (ATA 26)......Page 115 2.6 Flight Controls (ATA 27)......Page 130 2.7 Fuel (ATA 28)......Page 131 2.8 Hydraulic Power (ATA 29)......Page 144 2.9 Ice and Rain Protection (ATA 30)......Page 158 2.10 Landing Gear (ATA 32)......Page 176 2.11 Lights (ATA 33)......Page 177 2.12 Oxygen (ATA 35)......Page 181 2.13 Pneumatic (ATA 36)......Page 194 2.14 Water/Waste (ATA 38)......Page 203 2.15 Airborne Auxiliary Power (ATA 49)......Page 207 2.16 Avionic Systems......Page 210 References......Page 213 Further Reading......Page 217 3.1 Introduction......Page 223 Part 1 The Physics of Drag and Lift Generation......Page 225 3.2 Drag Generation......Page 226 3.3 Lift Generation on Airfoils in Two-Dimensional Low-Speed Flow......Page 229 3.4 Lift Generation on Finite-Span Wings in Low-Speed Flow......Page 233 3.7 Lift Generation in Hypersonic Flight......Page 235 3.8 Summary......Page 236 References......Page 237 Notation......Page 239 3.9 Airfoil Geometric and Aerodynamic Definitions......Page 243 3.10 Wing Geometric and Aerodynamic Definitions......Page 257 3.11 Fundamentals of Vector Fluid Dynamics......Page 261 3.12 Fundamentals of Potential Flow......Page 272 3.13 Elementary Boundary Layer Flow......Page 288 3.14 Incompressible Flow Over Airfoils......Page 299 3.15 Incompressible Flow Over Finite Wings......Page 333 3.16 Shock Wave Relationships......Page 352 3.17 Compressible Flow Over Airfoils......Page 367 3.18 Compressible Flow Over Finite Wings......Page 382 References......Page 396 3.19 Incompressible Inviscid Flow Over a Low-Aspect-Ratio Wing at Zero Angle of Attack......Page 400 3.20 Wave Drag......Page 402 3.21 Equivalence Rule or Area Rule......Page 403 3.22 Bodies of Revolution at Small Angle of Attack......Page 404 3.23 Cross-Flow Analysis for Slender Bodies of Revolution at Small Angle of Attack......Page 406 3.24 Lift on a Slender Wing......Page 408 3.25 Low-Aspect-Ratio Wing-Body Combinations at Large Angle of Attack......Page 410 References......Page 412 Part 4 Computational Aerodynamics......Page 414 3.26 Governing Equations......Page 416 3.27 Grid Generation......Page 418 3.28 CFD Methods for the Compressible Navier–Stokes Equations......Page 424 References......Page 429 3.29 General......Page 449 3.31 High-Speed Tunnels......Page 450 3.33 Flow Measurement Techniques......Page 452 3.34 Density-Based Optical Flow Field Measurement Methods......Page 463 3.35 Other Flow Field Measurement Methods......Page 468 References......Page 469 Part 6 Fast Response Pressure Probes......Page 470 3.36 Probe Types and Ranges......Page 471 3.37 Probe Mounting......Page 472 3.38 Measuring Considerations......Page 473 3.39 Multisensor Probes......Page 474 3.40 Data Acquisition......Page 475 3.41 Postprocessing......Page 477 References......Page 479 3.42 Aeroelasticity......Page 482 3.43 Aircraft Airworthiness Certification......Page 490 3.44 Aeroelastic Design......Page 492 Further Reading......Page 493 Part 8 Computational Aeroelasticity......Page 494 3.45 Beginning of Transonic Small Perturbation Theory......Page 495 3.46 Development of Euler and Navier–Stokes–Based Computational Aeroelasticity Tools......Page 498 3.47 Computational Aeroelasticity in Rotorcraft......Page 503 3.48 Impact of Parallel Computers and Development of Three-Level Parallel Solvers......Page 506 3.49 Conclusion......Page 509 References......Page 510 3.51 Introduction......Page 516 3.52 Aeroacoustics Theoretical Background......Page 517 3.53 Computational Aeroacoustics and Future Directions......Page 523 3.54 Noise Measurements: Anechoic Chamber Experiments......Page 525 3.55 Applications......Page 527 References......Page 533 Section 4 Aircraft Performance, Stability, and Control......Page 536 Notation......Page 537 4.1 Standard Atmosphere and Height Measurement......Page 539 4.2 Airspeed and Airspeed Measurement......Page 561 4.3 Drag and Drag Power (Power Required)......Page 565 4.4 Engine (Powerplant) Performance......Page 574 4.5 Level Flight Performance......Page 582 4.6 Climbing and Descending Flight......Page 588 4.7 Turning Performance......Page 599 4.8 Stall and Spin......Page 602 4.9 Range and Endurance......Page 605 4.10 Takeoff and Landing Performance......Page 615 4.11 Airplane Operations......Page 625 References......Page 632 Notation......Page 635 4.12 Mathematical Modeling and Simulation of Fixed-Wing Aircraft......Page 638 4.13 Development of the Linearized Equations of Motion......Page 649 4.14 Calculation of Aerodynamic Derivatives......Page 662 4.15 Aircraft Dynamic Stability......Page 667 4.16 Aircraft Response to Controls and Atmospheric Disturbances......Page 674 Further Reading......Page 681 Part 3 Computational Optimal Control......Page 683 4.17 Optimal Control Problem......Page 684 4.18 Variational Approach to Optimal Control Problem Solution......Page 688 4.19 Numerical Solution of the Optimal Control Problem......Page 693 4.20 User Experience......Page 702 References......Page 714 Acronyms......Page 718 5.1 Radio Waves in a Vacuum......Page 731 5.2 Antennas and Power Budget of a Radio Link......Page 733 5.3 Radio Wave Propagation in the Terrestrial Environment......Page 734 5.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum and Its Management......Page 738 References......Page 741 5.5 Typical Flight Profile for Commercial Airplanes......Page 743 5.6 The Atmosphere......Page 745 5.7 Other Atmospheric Hazards......Page 759 5.8 The Ionosphere......Page 763 References......Page 764 5.9 Introduction......Page 765 5.10 Background of EM Coupling......Page 766 5.11 EM Environment and EMC Standards......Page 771 5.12 EMC Tools......Page 774 5.13 Engineering Method......Page 777 5.14 Conclusion......Page 781 References......Page 782 5.16 Basic Principles......Page 784 5.17 Trends in Radar Technology......Page 792 5.18 Radar Applications to Aeronautics......Page 795 5.19 Overview of Military Requirements and Specific Developments......Page 797 5.21 Fundamental Physical Laws......Page 799 5.22 IR Sensors......Page 803 5.23 Passive Optoelectronic Systems......Page 805 5.24 NVIS Technology Overview......Page 814 5.25 NVIS Compatibility Issues......Page 820 5.26 Airborne Lasers......Page 821 References......Page 831 5.27 Optical Fiber Theory and Applications......Page 832 References......Page 845 5.28 Foreword......Page 847 5.29 Flight Control Objectives and Principles......Page 848 5.30 Flight Control Systems Design......Page 861 5.31 Airbus Fly-by-Wire: An Example of Modern Flight Control......Page 871 5.32 Some Control Challenges......Page 890 References......Page 893 5.34 Introduction to Avionics......Page 897 5.35 Requirements for Avionics......Page 900 5.36 Physical Architectures......Page 901 5.37 Avionics Logical Architecture......Page 909 5.38 Avionics Example: The Airbus A320 Flight Control System......Page 918 Further Reading......Page 922 5.40 Evolutions......Page 924 5.41 Aeronautical Radio Communication Types......Page 926 5.42 Aeronautical Communication System Design......Page 930 5.43 VHF Voice Communications......Page 946 5.44 VHF Datalink Communications......Page 947 5.45 HF Communication System......Page 951 5.46 Satellite Communication System......Page 953 5.47 Military Aeronautical Communications......Page 956 5.48 Future Trends......Page 958 References......Page 959 5.50 Line-of-Sight Positioning......Page 960 5.51 Calculation of Aircraft Position......Page 961 5.52 Air Navigation and Landing Aids......Page 970 References......Page 983 5.53 Introduction......Page 985 5.54 Inertial Sensors......Page 986 References......Page 1016 5.56 Vision-Based Navigation......Page 1018 5.57 Integrated Navigation Systems......Page 1023 References......Page 1035 5.58 GNSS Segments......Page 1037 5.59 GNSS Observables......Page 1040 5.60 GPS Error Sources......Page 1048 5.62 GNSS Performance Requirements in Aviation......Page 1054 5.63 GNSS Augmentation Strategies in Aviation......Page 1057 References......Page 1067 5.65 Rules of AIR......Page 1071 5.66 Airspace Categories and Classes......Page 1072 5.67 Separation Standards......Page 1073 5.68 Collision Detection and Avoidance......Page 1074 5.69 Conflict Detection and Resolution Approaches......Page 1082 5.70 SA&CA Technologies......Page 1086 5.71 Conflict Resolution Heuristics......Page 1091 5.72 Automatic Dependent Surveillance......Page 1098 5.73 Multilateration Systems......Page 1102 References......Page 1103 5.74 General Layout of ATM Systems......Page 1106 5.75 Fundamental ATM System Design Drivers......Page 1108 5.76 Airspace Structure......Page 1109 5.77 ATM Telecommunications Infrastructure......Page 1111 5.78 ATM Surveillance Infrastructure......Page 1115 5.79 Meteorological Services......Page 1116 5.80 Trajectory Design......Page 1120 5.81 CNS+A Evolutions......Page 1124 References......Page 1127 5.82 Introduction......Page 1130 5.83 Software Life-Cycle Process......Page 1131 5.84 Software Requirements......Page 1134 5.85 Software Design......Page 1137 5.86 Aerospace Software Verification and Validation......Page 1139 5.87 Tools for Safety and Reliability Assessment......Page 1153 5.88 Certification Considerations for Aerospace Systems......Page 1159 References......Page 1161 5.89 Human Performance Modeling......Page 1162 5.90 Human Factors Engineering Program......Page 1168 5.91 Techniques for Task Analysis......Page 1171 5.92 Design Considerations......Page 1177 5.93 Design Evaluation......Page 1183 References......Page 1186 6.2 Introduction......Page 1189 6.3 Overall Approach......Page 1190 6.4 Government Regulations......Page 1208 6.5 Conceptual Design......Page 1219 6.6 Military Aircraft Design......Page 1262 6.7 Commercial and Civil Aircraft Design......Page 1265 6.8 Life Cycle Cost (LCC)......Page 1270 6.9 Commercial Aircraft Operating Costs......Page 1273 6.10 Unmanned Air Vehicles......Page 1276 6.11 Lighter-Than-Air Vehicles (LTA)......Page 1281 6.12 V/STOL Air Vehicles......Page 1287 6.13 Performance......Page 1300 Further Reading......Page 1328 Section 7 Spacecraft Systems......Page 1330 7.1 Introduction......Page 1331 7.2 Orbits......Page 1338 7.3 Satellite Missions......Page 1339 7.4 Launch Vehicles......Page 1384 7.5 Ground Segment......Page 1388 References......Page 1391 Part 2 Test and Product Certification of Space Vehicles......Page 1393 7.7 Verification Basics......Page 1395 7.8 Requirements Development Basics......Page 1396 7.9 Certification Requirements and Test Plan Development......Page 1397 7.10 Verification Methods......Page 1398 7.11 Test Basics......Page 1399 7.12 Compliance Documents......Page 1401 7.13 TLYF Overview......Page 1409 Part 3 Space Safety Engineering and Design......Page 1416 7.14 Introduction......Page 1417 7.15 Unmanned Space Systems Design and Engineering......Page 1420 7.16 Crewed Space Systems Design and Engineering......Page 1423 7.17 Combustion and Materials Engineering and Safety......Page 1428 7.18 Suborbital Flight Systems, Spaceplanes, Hypersonic Transport, and New Uses of the “Protozone” or “Near Space”......Page 1429 7.19 Launch Site Design and Safety Standards......Page 1431 7.20 Licensing and Safety Controls and Management for Various Types of Launcher Systems......Page 1432 7.21 Air and Space Traffic Control and Management......Page 1433 7.22 Atmospheric and Environmental Pollution......Page 1434 7.23 Orbital Debris Concerns and Tracking and Sensor Systems......Page 1436 7.24 Cosmic Hazards and Planetary Defense and Safety......Page 1438 7.25 Systems Engineering and Space Safety......Page 1440 7.26 Future Trends in Space Safety Engineering, Design, and Study......Page 1442 7.27 Conclusions......Page 1443 References......Page 1444 7.29 Premium Placed on Mass and Volume......Page 1447 7.30 Common Attributes of Manned Spacecraft......Page 1451 7.31 Optimization of Humans with Machines......Page 1458 7.32 Human Spacecraft Configuration......Page 1461 7.33 Space Vehicle Architecture......Page 1472 7.34 ISS Crew Compartment Design......Page 1477 7.35 Systems......Page 1482 References......Page 1519 Notation......Page 1521 8.1 Orbital Mechanics......Page 1522 8.2 Orbital Maneuvers......Page 1541 8.3 Earth Orbiting Satellites......Page 1558 8.4 Interplanetary Missions......Page 1580 References......Page 1602 Section 9 Rockets and Launch Vehicles......Page 1604 9.1 Rocket Science......Page 1605 9.2 Propulsion Systems......Page 1637 9.3 Launch Vehicles......Page 1670 References......Page 1681 Section 10 Earth’s Environment and Space......Page 1682 10.2 Properties of the Earth’s Atmosphere......Page 1683 10.3 How the Earth’s Atmosphere Works......Page 1688 10.4 Atmospheric Dynamics and Atmospheric Models......Page 1692 10.5 Electrical Phenomena in the Atmosphere......Page 1697 References......Page 1698 10.6 Background......Page 1699 10.7 The Plasma Environment......Page 1701 10.8 The Neutral Gas Environment......Page 1706 10.9 The Vacuum Environment......Page 1708 10.10 The Radiation Environment......Page 1709 References......Page 1713 10.12 Physical Properties of the Planets......Page 1716 10.13 Space Age Discoveries......Page 1719 References......Page 1727 10.14 Origin of the Moon......Page 1729 10.15 Orbital Parameters......Page 1730 10.16 Lunar Geography......Page 1734 10.17 Lunar Geology......Page 1735 10.18 Physical Surface Properties......Page 1739 10.19 Lunar Surface Environment......Page 1749 References......Page 1756 10.20 Orbital Characteristics......Page 1757 10.21 Solid Geophysical Properties and Interiors......Page 1758 10.22 Surface and Subsurface......Page 1760 10.23 Atmosphere......Page 1768 10.25 Search for Life on Mars......Page 1771 10.26 Exploration......Page 1772 References......Page 1774 10.27 Introduction......Page 1777 10.28 The Sun and the Heliosphere......Page 1778 10.29 Structure and Dynamics of the Magnetospheric System......Page 1782 10.30 The Solar–Terrestrial Energy Chain......Page 1784 10.31 Dynamics of the Magnetosphere-Ionosphere-Atmosphere System......Page 1786 10.32 Importance of Atmospheric Coupling......Page 1793 10.33 Sun–Earth Connections and Human Technology......Page 1795 10.34 Summary......Page 1796 Further Reading......Page 1798 10.35 Introduction......Page 1799 10.36 Spatial Distribution of Space Debris......Page 1804 10.37 The Collision Risk......Page 1807 10.38 The Geostationary Orbit......Page 1810 10.39 Long-Term Evolution of the Space Debris Environment and Mitigation Measures......Page 1812 Further Reading......Page 1814 Section 11 Spacecraft Subsystems......Page 1816 11.1 Introduction......Page 1817 11.2 Rigid-Body Dynamics......Page 1818 11.3 Orientation Kinematics......Page 1828 11.4 Attitude Stabilization......Page 1841 11.5 Spin Stabilization of an Energy-Dissipating Spacecraft......Page 1846 11.6 Three-Axis Stabilization......Page 1848 11.7 Disturbance Torques......Page 1850 11.8 Spacecraft with a Fixed Momentum Wheel and Thrusters......Page 1859 11.9 Three-Axis Reaction Wheel System......Page 1873 11.10 Control Moment Gyroscope......Page 1879 11.11 Effects of Structural Flexibility......Page 1884 11.12 Attitude Determination......Page 1892 References......Page 1898 11.13 Overview......Page 1900 11.14 Observational Payload Types......Page 1902 11.15 Observational Payload Performance Figures of Merit......Page 1926 References......Page 1931 11.16 Role of Spacecraft Structures and Various Interfaces......Page 1933 11.17 Mechanical Requirements......Page 1938 11.18 Space Mission Environment and Mechanical Loads......Page 1939 11.19 Project Overview: Successive Designs and Iterative Verification of Structural Requirements......Page 1944 11.20 Analytical Evaluations......Page 1947 11.21 Test Verification, Qualification, and Flight Acceptance......Page 1949 11.22 Satellite Qualification and Flight Acceptance......Page 1950 11.23 Materials and Processes......Page 1953 11.24 Manufacturing of Spacecraft Structures......Page 1956 11.25 Composites......Page 1958 11.26 Composite Structures......Page 1960 References......Page 1965 11.27 Introduction......Page 1967 11.28 Solar Arrays......Page 1979 11.29 Batteries......Page 1999 11.30 Power Control Electronics......Page 2020 11.31 Subsystem Design......Page 2026 Acknowledgments......Page 2033 References......Page 2034 Part 5 Systems Engineering, Requirements, Independent Verification and Validation, and Software Safety for Aerospace Systems......Page 2035 11.32 Developing Software for Aerospace Systems......Page 2036 11.33 Impact of Poorly Written Requirements......Page 2040 11.34 Benefit of Requirements Analysis......Page 2041 11.35 Application of Independent Verification and Validation......Page 2042 11.36 Consequences of Failure......Page 2043 11.38 General IV&V Techniques......Page 2044 11.39 Software Safety......Page 2047 11.40 Certification......Page 2058 11.41 Introduction......Page 2059 11.42 Heat Transfer......Page 2063 11.43 Thermal Analysis......Page 2076 11.44 Thermal Control Techniques......Page 2083 11.45 Spacecraft Thermal Design......Page 2090 Further Reading......Page 2099 11.46 Introduction......Page 2102 11.47 Basic Units and Definitions in Communications Engineering......Page 2103 11.48 Frequency Allocations and Some Aspects of the Radio Regulations......Page 2104 11.49 Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency, and Polarization Selection for Satellite Communications......Page 2108 11.50 Link Consideration......Page 2114 11.51 Communications Subsystem of a Communications Satellite......Page 2122 11.52 Some Common Modulation and Access Techniques for Satellite Communications......Page 2132 11.53 Satellite Capacity and the Sizing of Satellites......Page 2152 Further Reading......Page 2155 Section 12 Spacecraft Design......Page 2157 12.1 Spacecraft Design Process......Page 2158 12.2 Spacecraft Design Example......Page 2160 Further Reading......Page 2202 12.3 Introduction......Page 2204 12.4 Concurrent Engineering Methodology......Page 2208 References......Page 2274 12.6 Introduction......Page 2276 12.7 History and Evolution of Small Spacecraft......Page 2279 12.8 Programmatic Considerations......Page 2286 12.9 Life Cycle Considerations......Page 2293 12.10 Small Spacecraft Technologies......Page 2299 12.11 Case Studies......Page 2303 12.12 Conclusion......Page 2308 References......Page 2309 Index......Page 2312