Water Law, Policy and Economics in Italy: Between National Autonomy and EU Law Constraints (Global Issues in Water Policy, 28)

Description

This book provides the first comprehensive overview of the most important water-related issues that centre on Italy, analysed from several disciplinary perspectives – such as hydrology, economics, law, sociology, environmental sciences and policy studies – in order to promote full understanding of the challenges the country is facing and the ways it could best tackle them.Despite the misconception that Italy is a water-scarce country, is in fact quite rich in water resources. Such resources, however, are unevenly distributed over the Italian territory. Italy’s northern regions rely on quite an abundant quantity of freshwater, whereas in the southern area water endowment is limited. Moreover, climatic differences between North and South contribute to widen the divide. This disparity has notable consequences of socio-economic character, some of which, in turn, feed back into the environmental conditions of Italian regions: pollution, floods, landslides and droughts are among the problems affecting the country. There are numerous features of water use and consumption that distinguish Italy from other comparable countries, such as the significant role played by agriculture (a water-intensive activity), a lead position in the consumption of bottled water, lower-than-average prices of water and a far-from-optimal efficiency of waterworks.  All such aspects, and many others, make Italy an essential case study. Introduction Contents About the Editors Contributors Part I: Water Resources and Their Use and Management in Italy Chapter 1: Water Resources of Italy 1.1 The Country’s Outlines 1.2 Surface Water Resources 1.3 Groundwater Resources 1.4 Unconventional Water Resources 1.5 Water Quality and Environmental Protection 1.5.1 Evaluation Tools 1.5.2 The Identification of the Pollution Sources 1.5.3 The Treatment of Municipal Wastewater 1.5.4 Pollution from Agriculture 1.5.5 Pollution from Industry 1.5.6 The Qualitative Status of Italian Waters 1.6 Water Use 1.6.1 Urban and Domestic Uses 1.6.2 Water for Agriculture 1.6.3 Water for Industry 1.6.4 Water for Electricity 1.6.5 Secondary Uses of Water 1.6.6 Preservation of Monuments, Amenities and Touristic Resorts 1.7 Some Typical and Significant Cases 1.7.1 The Po River Basin 1.7.2 The Tiber River Basin 1.7.3 The Venice Lagoon 1.7.4 Apulia 1.7.5 Sicily 1.8 Conclusions and Recommendations References Chapter 2: Coping with Floods in Italy: Learning from the Past to Plan Future Adaptation 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Unpredictability Karma 2.3 The Heritage of Late Nineteenth Century Flood Disasters 2.4 Four Key Events in the Twentieth Century 2.5 The Planning Chimera 2.6 Designing Adaptation Strategies 2.6.1 Awareness of Climate Change 2.6.2 Smart Forecasting 2.6.3 River Basin Management 2.6.4 Improving Design Standards of Engineering Works 2.6.5 Maintenance 2.6.6 Dam Operation Strategies 2.6.7 Reducing Exposure 2.6.8 Discontinuing Land Consumption 2.6.9 Breaking Down Vulnerability 2.6.10 The Urban Context 2.6.11 Risk Consciousness 2.7 Conclusion References Chapter 3: The Uses and Value of Water in Italy: Evidence from Selected Case Studies in Italy, with a Particular Focus on Irrigation, Industry and Hydropower 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Water Uses in Italy 3.3 The Economic Value of Urban Water Services 3.4 The Economic Value of Irrigation 3.5 Industry and Energy: A Focus on Hydropower 3.6 Recreational and Existence Values: The Value of Water to Communities and Individuals 3.7 Conclusions References Chapter 4: Testing the Waters: A Sociological Analysis of Domestic Water Use and Consumption 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Water as a Sociological Object of Analysis 4.3 Italy as a Meaningful Case Study 4.3.1 The Struggle over Water Management 4.3.2 Water Service Provision and Quality 4.3.3 Bottled Water 4.4 Data and Methods 4.4.1 Data and Dependent Variables 4.4.2 Control Variables 4.5 An Exploration into the Social Stratification of Water Waste and Bottled Water Purchase 4.6 Discussion and Conclusions References Chapter 5: Water Resources Management in Italy: Institutions, Laws and Approaches 5.1 Introduction: The “New” Water Law as the Point of Intersection of Key Issues 5.2 The “Custodial” Role of the State and the Participatory Management of Commons 5.3 The (Difficult) Priority of Planning 5.4 Water Withdrawal Concessions in a Condition of “Certain Uncertainty” 5.5 Technical Regulation and Water Pricing 5.6 Conclusions References Part II: Water Management and Environmental Concerns Chapter 6: Water-Dependent Ecosystems in Italy 6.1 Water-Ecosystem Dependencies 6.2 Towards the Assessment of WES 6.3 Incorporating Ecosystem Values in Watershed Management: The Italian Experiences 6.4 Conclusion References Chapter 7: Water Quality Control Policies and the Criminalisation of Pollution 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The Evolution of the Italian Regime on Water Quality 7.3 Water Quality Legislation in Italy: Striving for EU-Compliance 7.3.1 Water Framework Directive 7.3.1.1 Governance 7.3.1.2 River Basin Management Plans and Exemptions 7.3.1.3 Water Quality and Monitoring 7.3.2 Drinking Water Directive 7.3.3 Nitrates Directive 7.4 Criminalisation of Water Pollution in Italy 7.4.1 Criminal Offences in the Environmental Code 7.4.2 Water-Related Crimes in the Criminal Code: A Patchy Framework 7.4.3 Law no. 68/2015 on Environmental Crimes: A Paradigm Shift 7.5 Conclusions References Chapter 8: Managing Water Scarcity and Droughts: The Po Experience 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The Po River Basin: A Developed but Vulnerable Area, Increasingly Hit by Droughts 8.3 Socio-economic Impacts of Droughts: An Assessment Focused on the Agricultural Sector 8.4 Drought Risk Management: The Experience of the Po River Basin 8.5 Conclusions References Chapter 9: The Management of International River Basins: The Case of Transboundary Water Cooperation Between Italy and Its Neighbours 9.1 Introduction 9.2 International Water Law and the Regulation of Transboundary Water Cooperation 9.2.1 The Theory of Limited Territorial Sovereignty 9.2.2 The Principle of Equitable and Reasonable Utilisation 9.2.3 The Obligation Not to Cause Significant Harm 9.2.4 The Principles of Notification, Consultation and Negotiation 9.2.5 The Principles of Cooperation and Exchange of Information 9.2.6 Peaceful Settlement of Disputes 9.3 Transboundary Water Cooperation in the Pan-European Region 9.3.1 The Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes 9.3.2 Water Governance in the European Union 9.4 Transboundary Water Cooperation Between Italy and Its Neighbouring Countries 9.4.1 The Po River Basin 9.4.2 The Lugano and Maggiore Lakes 9.4.2.1 The Regulation of the Level of Lake Maggiore 9.4.2.2 The Commission for the Protection of Italo-Swiss Waters Against Pollution 9.4.3 The Permanent Italian-Slovenian Commission for Water Management 9.5 Conclusion References Chapter 10: The Italian Virtual Water Trade and Water Footprint of Agricultural Production: Trends and Perspectives 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Data and Method 10.3 Trends in the Water Footprint of Agricultural Production in Italy 10.4 The Virtual Water Trade of Italy 10.5 Blue Water and the Euro-Mediterranean Context 10.6 Italian Excellence: Olive Oil and Wine 10.7 Discussion on the Policy Relevance of Water Footprint and Virtual Water Trade References Part III: The Provision of Water and Sanitation Services Chapter 11: The Human Right to Water in Italy’s Foreign Policy and Domestic Law 11.1 Introduction 11.2 An Overview of the Right to Water Under International and EU Law 11.2.1 The Legal Basis of the Right to Water 11.2.2 The Content of the Right to Water 11.2.3 The Right to Water in the EU 11.3 The External Dimension of Italy’s Policy on the Right to Water 11.4 The Right to Water in the Domestic Law and Policy of Italy 11.4.1 The Socio-Juridical Context of the Emergence of the Right to Water 11.4.2 The Legal Recognition of the Right to Water 11.4.2.1 The Constitution’s Silence as to the Right to Water 11.4.2.2 The Characterisation of Water Services and the Ensuing Allocation of Competences 11.4.2.3 The Many-Sided Implementation of the Right to Water The Right to Water as a Negative Right The Right to Water as a Positive Right 11.4.2.4 Distributive Aspects of the Right to Water 11.5 Conclusions References Chapter 12: The Permanent (De-)Institutionalisation of Multi-level Governance of Water Services in Italy 12.1 Hybrid Water Governance Between Institutionalisation and De-Institutionalisation 12.2 Between Consolidation and Crisis: The Permanent Re-design of Water Service Policy 12.3 Water Service Governance in Practice: The Recent Developments 12.3.1 The Multi-level Regulatory Governance Design Between National and Local Authorities 12.3.2 The “Public Water” Movement in Local and National Politics 12.3.3 The State of the Market 12.4 Concluding Remarks: “The Centre Cannot Hold” References Chapter 13: The Integrated Water Service in the Italian Legal System Between Solidarity and Competition: An Overview 13.1 Introduction: The Water Supply Service Between National and European Rules 13.1.1 The Water Supply Service and the Services of General Economic Interest 13.2 The Management of the Integrated Water Service: General Outlines 13.2.1 The Starting Point: Law no. 36/1994 13.2.2 The Integrated Water Service and the Environmental Code 13.2.3 The Current Situation 13.3 The Water Service Tariff and ARERA: An Overview 13.4 Conclusions References Chapter 14: The Evolution of the Italian Water and Wastewater Industry in the Period 1994–2018 14.1 The Water and Wastewater Industry in Italy Prior to 1994 and the Far-Reaching Reform Introduced by the Galli Law 14.2 The Period of Ministerial Regulation and the Inability to Review a Problematic Tariff Method 14.3 The Uncertain, and Not Always Linear, Outcomes of the Law on Tendering the Service 14.4 The Implementation of the Reform Fifteen Years After the Galli Law 14.5 The Referendum and the Advent of Independent Regulation 14.6 The Reorganisation of Governance Between Delays and Shortcomings 14.7 ARERA’s Regulatory Work 14.7.1 Tariff Regulation 14.7.2 Increase in Investment 14.7.3 Improvement of Operators’ Financial and Economic Position 14.7.4 Contractual Quality of the Service 14.7.5 Water Bonus: Supporting Users in Economic Hardship 14.7.6 Service Technical Quality 14.7.7 New Per-Capita Tariff Articulation 14.7.8 Towards the Tariff Method of the Third Regulatory Period 14.8 Conclusions Further Readings References Part IV: The Implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive and the EU Floods Directive Chapter 15: Water Governance in Italy: From Fragmentation to Coherence Through Coordination Attempts 15.1 Introduction 15.2 From Fragmentation to Preliminary Harmonising Attempts 15.3 The WFD and FD Transposition in Italy and the Impact on the Existing Institutional Framework 15.4 Conclusions: Present and Future Challenges Bibliography Chapter 16: A Practitioners’ View on the Application of the Water Framework Directive and the Floods Directive in Italy 16.1 Introduction (What Has to Be Done) 16.2 Who (Is Who in Italy’s Water Resources Governance) 16.3 An Overview of What Has Been Done (How) 16.3.1 The Implementation of the WFD in Italy: The Second RBMPs 16.3.2 The Implementation of the FD in Italy: The First FRMPs 16.4 Critical Analysis and Discussion 16.5 The Science Behind the Scenes 16.6 Conclusions and Hopes References Chapter 17: Economic Regulation, Water Pricing, and Environmental and Resource Costs: The Difficult Marriage Between Financial Sustainability, Investment Requirements and Economic Efficiency 17.1 Introduction 17.2 The Italian Water Management System and Its Financial Structure 17.2.1 Water Resource Ownership and Allocation 17.2.2 Sectoral Uses of Water and Their Management Systems 17.2.3 Regulatory Functions 17.3 Economic Instruments and Water Resources Management 17.4 The Evolution of PWS Price Regulation: Recent Developments 17.4.1 From the MTN to the MTI 17.4.2 Tariff Structure 17.4.3 Tariff Dynamics and Affordability 17.4.4 Tariffs, Investments and Financial Sustainability 17.5 Experiences with Other Sectors 17.5.1 Experiences with Irrigation Pricing 17.5.2 Experiences with Industrial Pricing 17.6 A Still Unfinished Puzzle References Chapter 18: Environmental and Resource Costs Assessment and the Case for Reforming the Italian System of Water Abstraction Charges 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Designing Public Water Pricing 18.2.1 The Piedmont Region Context 18.2.2 The Reform Structure 18.2.2.1 Metering 18.2.2.2 Weighing Water Pricing by Availability and Ecological Status of Sources 18.2.2.3 The Weight of Pollution: Calibrating Water Pricing by Quality of the Returned Water 18.2.2.4 Seasonality 18.2.2.5 Affordability 18.3 Quantifying the Cost of Abstraction and Pollution: A Simulation for Piedmont 18.4 Proportionality Measures and Affordable Charges 18.4.1 Assessing Proportionality 18.4.2 Assessing Affordability 18.4.3 Revenues Simulation Under the Water Charges Reform 18.5 A Spatial Analysis of Pressures and Revenues 18.6 Conclusions References Chapter 19: Public Participation in the Implementation in Italy of the Water-Related Directives 19.1 Public Participation in Environmental Matters: The International Background 19.2 Public Participation in European Environmental Law with a Specific Focus on the Water Framework Directive and the Floods Directive 19.3 Public Participation in the Water Governance in Italy 19.3.1 Public Participation in Relation to the FRMPs of the Eastern Alps 19.4 River Contracts: A Form of Participative Process 19.4.1 River Contracts at the Crossroads of Soft Law and Hard Law 19.4.2 River Contracts in Italy 19.5 Concluding Remarks References Part V: Conclusion: A View on Italy from Within and from the Outside Chapter 20: A View from the Outside: What Italy Can Learn and Teach in the Field of Water Policy Chapter 21: A View from Within: Concluding Remarks 21.1 Water Is “One”, Uses and Perspectives Are Many 21.2 The Evolution over Time in the Approach to Water Issues 21.3 A Multitude of Points of View on Water-Related Matters 21.4 The Governance of Water Resources: Eppur si muove 21.5 The Integration of Ecology and Economy 21.6 Water-Related Conflicts and How to Spot and Defuse Them 21.7 A Forward-Looking Outlook Index