College Physics

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8. Modern Perspective......Page 13 10. Features of OpenStax College Physics......Page 14 14. Expert Reviewers......Page 15 15. Our Partners......Page 16 Chapter 1. Introduction: The Nature of Science and Physics......Page 17 1.1. Physics: An Introduction*......Page 18 1.2. Physical Quantities and Units*......Page 25 1.3. Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Figures*......Page 32 1.4. Approximation*......Page 36 Glossary......Page 38 Chapter 2. Kinematics......Page 43 2.1. Displacement*......Page 44 2.2. Vectors, Scalars, and Coordinate Systems*......Page 47 2.3. Time, Velocity, and Speed*......Page 48 2.4. Acceleration*......Page 52 2.5. Motion Equations for Constant Acceleration in One Dimension*......Page 61 2.6. Problem-Solving Basics for One-Dimensional Kinematics*......Page 71 2.7. Falling Objects*......Page 73 2.8. Graphical Analysis of One-Dimensional Motion*......Page 81 Glossary......Page 88 Chapter 3. Two-Dimensional Kinematics......Page 99 3.1. Kinematics in Two Dimensions: An Introduction*......Page 100 3.2. Vector Addition and Subtraction: Graphical Methods*......Page 103 3.3. Vector Addition and Subtraction: Analytical Methods*......Page 110 3.4. Projectile Motion*......Page 116 3.5. Addition of Velocities*......Page 124 Glossary......Page 132 Chapter 4. Dynamics: Force and Newton's Laws of Motion......Page 143 4.1. Development of Force Concept*......Page 145 4.3. Newton’s Second Law of Motion: Concept of a System*......Page 146 4.4. Newton’s Third Law of Motion: Symmetry in Forces*......Page 152 4.5. Normal, Tension, and Other Examples of Forces*......Page 155 4.6. Problem-Solving Strategies*......Page 163 4.7. Further Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion*......Page 165 4.8. Extended Topic: The Four Basic Forces—An Introduction*......Page 171 Glossary......Page 175 Chapter 5. Further Applications of Newton's Laws: Friction, Drag, and Elasticity......Page 185 5.1. Friction*......Page 186 5.2. Drag Forces*......Page 191 5.3. Elasticity: Stress and Strain*......Page 196 Glossary......Page 204 Chapter 6. Uniform Circular Motion and Gravitation......Page 211 6.1. Rotation Angle and Angular Velocity*......Page 212 6.2. Centripetal Acceleration*......Page 216 6.3. Centripetal Force*......Page 220 6.4. Fictitious Forces and Non-inertial Frames: The Coriolis Force*......Page 224 6.5. Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation*......Page 227 6.6. Satellites and Kepler’s Laws: An Argument for Simplicity*......Page 234 Glossary......Page 239 Chapter 7. Work, Energy, and Energy Resources......Page 251 7.1. Work: The Scientific Definition*......Page 252 7.2. Kinetic Energy and the Work-Energy Theorem*......Page 254 7.3. Gravitational Potential Energy*......Page 259 7.4. Conservative Forces and Potential Energy*......Page 264 7.5. Nonconservative Forces*......Page 267 7.6. Conservation of Energy*......Page 272 7.7. Power*......Page 276 7.8. Work, Energy, and Power in Humans*......Page 280 7.9. World Energy Use*......Page 282 Glossary......Page 285 Chapter 8. Linear Momentum and Collisions......Page 297 8.1. Linear Momentum and Force*......Page 298 8.2. Impulse*......Page 300 8.3. Conservation of Momentum*......Page 302 8.4. Elastic Collisions in One Dimension*......Page 306 8.5. Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension*......Page 308 8.6. Collisions of Point Masses in Two Dimensions*......Page 312 8.7. Introduction to Rocket Propulsion*......Page 315 Glossary......Page 318 Chapter 9. Statics and Torque......Page 327 9.1. The First Condition for Equilibrium*......Page 328 9.2. The Second Condition for Equilibrium*......Page 329 9.3. Stability*......Page 334 9.4. Applications of Statics, Including Problem-Solving Strategies*......Page 337 9.5. Simple Machines*......Page 340 9.6. Forces and Torques in Muscles and Joints*......Page 344 Glossary......Page 349 Chapter 10. Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum......Page 357 10.1. Angular Acceleration*......Page 358 10.2. Kinematics of Rotational Motion*......Page 362 10.3. Dynamics of Rotational Motion: Rotational Inertia*......Page 367 10.4. Rotational Kinetic Energy: Work and Energy Revisited*......Page 371 10.5. Angular Momentum and Its Conservation*......Page 378 10.6. Collisions of Extended Bodies in Two Dimensions*......Page 384 10.7. Gyroscopic Effects: Vector Aspects of Angular Momentum*......Page 388 Glossary......Page 390 Chapter 11. Fluid Statics......Page 401 11.1. What Is a Fluid?*......Page 402 11.2. Density*......Page 403 11.3. Pressure*......Page 405 11.4. Variation of Pressure with Depth in a Fluid*......Page 407 11.5. Pascal’s Principle*......Page 411 11.6. Gauge Pressure, Absolute Pressure, and Pressure Measurement*......Page 413 11.7. Archimedes’ Principle*......Page 417 11.8. Cohesion and Adhesion in Liquids: Surface Tension and Capillary Action*......Page 423 11.9. Pressures in the Body*......Page 432 Glossary......Page 436 Chapter 12. Fluid Dynamics and Its Biological and Medical Applications......Page 447 12.1. Flow Rate and Its Relation to Velocity*......Page 448 12.2. Bernoulli’s Equation*......Page 451 12.3. The Most General Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation*......Page 455 12.4. Viscosity and Laminar Flow; Poiseuille’s Law*......Page 458 12.5. The Onset of Turbulence*......Page 465 12.6. Motion of an Object in a Viscous Fluid*......Page 467 12.7. Molecular Transport Phenomena: Diffusion, Osmosis, and Related Processes*......Page 469 Glossary......Page 472 Chapter 13. Temperature, Kinetic Theory, and the Gas Laws......Page 483 13.1. Temperature*......Page 484 13.2. Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids*......Page 491 13.3. The Ideal Gas Law*......Page 497 13.4. Kinetic Theory: Atomic and Molecular Explanation of Pressure and Temperature*......Page 503 13.5. Phase Changes*......Page 509 13.6. Humidity, Evaporation, and Boiling*......Page 514 Glossary......Page 519 Chapter 14. Heat and Heat Transfer Methods......Page 529 14.1. Heat*......Page 530 14.2. Temperature Change and Heat Capacity*......Page 531 14.3. Phase Change and Latent Heat*......Page 537 14.4. Heat Transfer Methods*......Page 543 14.5. Conduction*......Page 544 14.6. Convection*......Page 548 14.7. Radiation*......Page 553 Glossary......Page 557 Chapter 15. Thermodynamics......Page 569 15.1. The First Law of Thermodynamics*......Page 570 15.2. The First Law of Thermodynamics and Some Simple Processes*......Page 575 15.3. Introduction to the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Heat Engines and Their Efficiency*......Page 582 15.4. Carnot’s Perfect Heat Engine: The Second Law of Thermodynamics Restated*......Page 588 15.5. Applications of Thermodynamics: Heat Pumps and Refrigerators*......Page 592 15.6. Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Disorder and the Unavailability of Energy*......Page 597 15.7. Statistical Interpretation of Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics: The Underlying Explanation*......Page 604 Glossary......Page 608 Chapter 16. Oscillatory Motion and Waves......Page 619 16.1. Hooke’s Law: Stress and Strain Revisited*......Page 620 16.2. Period and Frequency in Oscillations*......Page 624 16.3. Simple Harmonic Motion: A Special Periodic Motion*......Page 625 16.4. The Simple Pendulum*......Page 630 16.5. Energy and the Simple Harmonic Oscillator*......Page 632 16.6. Uniform Circular Motion and Simple Harmonic Motion*......Page 634 16.7. Damped Harmonic Motion*......Page 637 16.8. Forced Oscillations and Resonance*......Page 641 16.9. Waves*......Page 643 16.10. Superposition and Interference*......Page 646 16.11. Energy in Waves: Intensity*......Page 651 Glossary......Page 653 Chapter 17. Physics of Hearing......Page 663 17.1. Sound*......Page 664 17.2. Speed of Sound, Frequency, and Wavelength*......Page 666 17.3. Sound Intensity and Sound Level*......Page 669 17.4. Doppler Effect and Sonic Booms*......Page 673 17.5. Sound Interference and Resonance: Standing Waves in Air Columns*......Page 678 17.6. Hearing*......Page 685 17.7. Ultrasound*......Page 690 Glossary......Page 697 Chapter 18. Electric Charge and Electric Field......Page 705 18.1. Static Electricity and Charge: Conservation of Charge*......Page 707 18.2. Conductors and Insulators*......Page 711 18.3. Coulomb’s Law*......Page 715 18.4. Electric Field: Concept of a Field Revisited*......Page 717 18.5. Electric Field Lines: Multiple Charges*......Page 719 18.6. Electric Forces in Biology*......Page 722 18.7. Conductors and Electric Fields in Static Equilibrium*......Page 723 18.8. Applications of Electrostatics*......Page 727 Glossary......Page 732 Chapter 19. Electric Potential and Electric Field......Page 745 19.1. Electric Potential Energy: Potential Difference*......Page 746 19.2. Electric Potential in a Uniform Electric Field*......Page 751 19.3. Electrical Potential Due to a Point Charge*......Page 754 19.4. Equipotential Lines*......Page 756 19.5. Capacitors and Dielectrics*......Page 758 19.6. Capacitors in Series and Parallel*......Page 766 19.7. Energy Stored in Capacitors*......Page 769 Glossary......Page 771 Chapter 20. Electric Current, Resistance, and Ohm's Law......Page 779 20.1. Current*......Page 780 20.2. Ohm’s Law: Resistance and Simple Circuits*......Page 785 20.3. Resistance and Resistivity*......Page 787 20.4. Electric Power and Energy*......Page 793 20.5. Alternating Current versus Direct Current*......Page 795 20.6. Electric Hazards and the Human Body*......Page 799 20.7. Nerve Conduction–Electrocardiograms*......Page 804 Glossary......Page 809 Chapter 21. Circuits and DC Instruments......Page 819 21.1. Resistors in Series and Parallel*......Page 820 21.2. Electromotive Force: Terminal Voltage*......Page 828 21.3. Kirchhoff’s Rules*......Page 836 21.4. DC Voltmeters and Ammeters*......Page 841 21.5. Null Measurements*......Page 844 21.6. DC Circuits Containing Resistors and Capacitors*......Page 847 Glossary......Page 852 Chapter 22. Magnetism......Page 865 22.1. Magnets*......Page 866 22.2. Ferromagnets and Electromagnets*......Page 868 22.3. Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Field Lines*......Page 872 22.4. Magnetic Field Strength: Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field*......Page 873 22.5. Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field: Examples and Applications*......Page 875 22.6. The Hall Effect*......Page 880 22.7. Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor*......Page 882 22.8. Torque on a Current Loop: Motors and Meters*......Page 884 22.9. Magnetic Fields Produced by Currents: Ampere’s Law*......Page 888 22.10. Magnetic Force between Two Parallel Conductors*......Page 892 22.11. More Applications of Magnetism*......Page 893 Glossary......Page 896 Chapter 23. Electromagnetic Induction, AC Circuits, and Electrical Technologies......Page 911 23.1. Induced Emf and Magnetic Flux*......Page 912 23.2. Faraday’s Law of Induction: Lenz’s Law*......Page 915 23.3. Motional Emf*......Page 917 23.4. Eddy Currents and Magnetic Damping*......Page 920 23.5. Electric Generators*......Page 923 23.6. Back Emf*......Page 927 23.7. Transformers*......Page 928 23.8. Electrical Safety: Systems and Devices*......Page 932 23.9. Inductance*......Page 936 23.10. RL Circuits*......Page 940 23.11. Reactance, Inductive and Capacitive*......Page 942 23.12. RLC Series AC Circuits*......Page 945 Glossary......Page 951 Chapter 24. Electromagnetic Waves......Page 965 24.1. Maxwell’s Equations: Electromagnetic Waves Predicted and Observed*......Page 966 24.2. Production of Electromagnetic Waves*......Page 968 24.3. The Electromagnetic Spectrum*......Page 971 24.4. Energy in Electromagnetic Waves*......Page 984 Glossary......Page 986 Chapter 25. Geometric Optics......Page 995 25.1. The Ray Aspect of Light*......Page 996 25.2. The Law of Reflection*......Page 997 25.3. The Law of Refraction*......Page 999 25.4. Total Internal Reflection*......Page 1004 25.5. Dispersion: The Rainbow and Prisms*......Page 1009 25.6. Image Formation by Lenses*......Page 1014 25.7. Image Formation by Mirrors*......Page 1027 Glossary......Page 1034 Chapter 26. Vision and Optical Instruments......Page 1043 26.1. Physics of the Eye*......Page 1044 26.2. Vision Correction*......Page 1048 26.3. Color and Color Vision*......Page 1052 26.4. Microscopes*......Page 1054 26.5. Telescopes*......Page 1060 26.6. Aberrations*......Page 1063 Glossary......Page 1065 Chapter 27. Wave Optics......Page 1071 27.1. The Wave Aspect of Light: Interference*......Page 1072 27.2. Huygens's Principle: Diffraction*......Page 1073 27.3. Young’s Double Slit Experiment*......Page 1076 27.4. Multiple Slit Diffraction*......Page 1080 27.5. Single Slit Diffraction*......Page 1083 27.6. Limits of Resolution: The Rayleigh Criterion*......Page 1086 27.7. Thin Film Interference*......Page 1090 27.8. Polarization*......Page 1095 27.9. *Extended Topic* Microscopy Enhanced by the Wave Characteristics of Light*......Page 1103 Glossary......Page 1106 Chapter 28. Special Relativity......Page 1117 28.1. Einstein’s Postulates*......Page 1118 28.2. Simultaneity And Time Dilation*......Page 1120 28.3. Length Contraction*......Page 1126 28.4. Relativistic Addition of Velocities*......Page 1130 28.5. Relativistic Momentum*......Page 1136 28.6. Relativistic Energy*......Page 1137 Glossary......Page 1145 Chapter 29. Introduction to Quantum Physics......Page 1155 29.1. Quantization of Energy*......Page 1156 29.2. The Photoelectric Effect*......Page 1159 29.3. Photon Energies and the Electromagnetic Spectrum*......Page 1162 29.4. Photon Momentum*......Page 1168 29.5. The Particle-Wave Duality*......Page 1171 29.6. The Wave Nature of Matter*......Page 1172 29.7. Probability: The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle*......Page 1176 29.8. The Particle-Wave Duality Reviewed*......Page 1181 Glossary......Page 1183 Chapter 30. Atomic Physics......Page 1191 30.1. Discovery of the Atom*......Page 1192 30.2. Discovery of the Parts of the Atom: Electrons and Nuclei*......Page 1193 30.3. Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom*......Page 1200 30.4. X Rays: Atomic Origins and Applications*......Page 1207 30.5. Applications of Atomic Excitations and De-Excitations*......Page 1212 30.6. The Wave Nature of Matter Causes Quantization*......Page 1220 30.7. Patterns in Spectra Reveal More Quantization*......Page 1223 30.8. Quantum Numbers and Rules*......Page 1225 30.9. The Pauli Exclusion Principle*......Page 1230 Glossary......Page 1235 Chapter 31. Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics......Page 1247 31.1. Nuclear Radioactivity*......Page 1248 31.2. Radiation Detection and Detectors*......Page 1252 31.3. Substructure of the Nucleus*......Page 1255 31.4. Nuclear Decay and Conservation Laws*......Page 1259 31.5. Half-Life and Activity*......Page 1266 31.6. Binding Energy*......Page 1272 31.7. Tunneling*......Page 1276 Glossary......Page 1278 Chapter 32. Medical Applications of Nuclear Physics......Page 1289 32.1. Medical Imaging and Diagnostics*......Page 1290 32.2. Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation*......Page 1294 32.3. Therapeutic Uses of Ionizing Radiation*......Page 1300 32.4. Food Irradiation*......Page 1302 32.5. Fusion*......Page 1303 32.6. Fission*......Page 1309 32.7. Nuclear Weapons*......Page 1314 Glossary......Page 1318 Chapter 33. Particle Physics......Page 1329 33.1. The Yukawa Particle and the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Revisited*......Page 1330 33.2. The Four Basic Forces*......Page 1332 33.3. Accelerators Create Matter from Energy*......Page 1334 33.4. Particles, Patterns, and Conservation Laws*......Page 1337 33.5. Quarks: Is That All There Is?*......Page 1343 33.6. GUTs: The Unification of Forces*......Page 1350 Glossary......Page 1354 Chapter 34. Frontiers of Physics......Page 1363 34.1. Cosmology and Particle Physics*......Page 1364 34.2. General Relativity and Quantum Gravity*......Page 1371 34.3. Superstrings*......Page 1376 34.4. Dark Matter and Closure*......Page 1377 34.5. Complexity and Chaos*......Page 1381 34.6. High-temperature Superconductors*......Page 1382 34.7. Some Questions We Know to Ask*......Page 1384 Glossary......Page 1385 Appendix A. Atomic Masses*......Page 1393 Appendix B. Selected Radioactive Isotopes*......Page 1399 Appendix C. Useful Information*......Page 1403 Appendix D. Glossary of Key Symbols and Notation*......Page 1407 Index......Page 1419 College Physics.pdf......Page 0 Blank Page......Page 2