The Internet and Philosophy of Science (Routledge Studies in the Philosophy of Science)

Description

From the perspective of the philosophy of science, this book analyzes the Internet conceived in a broad sense. It includes three layers that require philosophical attention: (1) the technological infrastructure, (2) the Web, and (3) cloud computing, along with apps and mobile Internet. The study focuses on the network of networks from the viewpoint of complexity, both structural and dynamic. In addition to the scientific side, this volume considers the technological facet and the social dimension of the Internet as a novel design. There is a clear contribution of the Internet to science: first, the very development of the network of networks requires the creation of new science; second, the Internet empowers scientific disciplines, such as communication sciences; and third, the Internet has fostered a whole new emergent field of data and information. After the opening chapter, which offers a series of keys to the book, there are nine chapters, grouped into four parts: (I) Configuration of the Internet and Its Future, (II) Structural and Dynamic Complexity in the Design of the Internet, (III) Internal and External Contributions of the Internet, and (IV) The Internet and the Sciences. Following this framework, The Internet and Philosophy of Science will be of interest to scholars and advanced students working in philosophy of science, philosophy of technology as well as science and technology studies. DOI 10.4324/9781003250470 Cover Half Title Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents List of Contributors Chapter 1: Creativity in the Internet as a Complex Setting: Interaction between Scientific Creativity, Technological Innovation and Social Innovation 1.1 A Perspective of Creativity in a Setting of Complexity 1.2 Scientific Creativity, Technological Innovation and Social Innovation 1.3 Three Large Layers, or Ontological Strata, of This Network of Networks 1.4 Creativity and Three Groups of Scientific Disciplines 1.5 Technological Innovation and Scientific Creativity in the Network 1.6 Creativity and the Social Innovation on the Layers of the Internet as a Complex System 1.7 Creativity and Communication through the Network of Networks: The Problem of Fake News 1.8 Origin and Characteristics of This Book Notes References Part I: Configuration of the Internet and Its Future Chapter 2: The Internet as a Complex System Articulated in Layers: Present Status and Possible Future 2.1 The General Framework of the Complexity of the Network of Networks 2.2 The Layer of the Internet sensu stricto as a Network 2.2.1 The Network and Main Factors Involved for Its Future 2.2.2 The Internet as a Scale-Free Network and Its Future 2.2.3 The Case of the Internet of Things 2.3 The Layer of the Web 2.3.1 The Future of the Web as a Threefold Undertaking 2.3.2 The Future of the Web as an Interaction of Internal and External Perspectives 2.3.3 Three Possible Scenarios for the Future of the Web 2.4 The Layer of the Cloud Computing, Practical Applications (Apps) and the ‘Mobile Internet’ 2.4.1 The Cloud Computing and the Role of Prediction 2.4.2 The Practical Applications (Apps) 2.4.3 The ‘Mobile Internet’ 2.5 Coda: From the Present Situation to the Near Future Notes References Chapter 3: The Future of the Web 3.1 Introduction 3.2 The Architecture of the Web 3.3 Privacy, Politics and the Centralization of the World Wide Web 3.4 The Future of the Web 3.4.1 Scenario 1: The Dystopian Future 3.4.2 Scenario 2: A More Open Web 3.5 The Future of the Web Redux Notes References Part II: Structural and Dynamic Complexity in the Design of the Internet Chapter 4: Designing an Internet of Machines and Humans for the Future 4.1 Introduction to the New Internet of Machines and Humans 4.2 Background and Related Work 4.2.1 The Internet of Things 4.2.2 Programmable Networks 4.2.3 Machine Intelligence 4.2.4 Privacy and Security 4.3 Lessons Learned from the Design of Today’s Internet 4.3.1 Characteristics of Data 4.3.2 Characteristics of Network Architecture 4.3.3 Characteristics of Machine Intelligence 4.3.4 The Making of Today’s Internet 4.4 Designing the Future Internet 4.4.1 Deeper Programmability and Customizability 4.4.2 Conduit of Computing Power 4.4.3 Human Centered Internet 4.4.4 Reaching the Underserved 4.5 Conclusion Acknowledgment References Chapter 5: Strategies for Managing Dynamic Complexity in Building the Internet 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Design and Complex Adaptive Systems 5.2.1 Addressing Growth in II 5.2.2 Addressing Adaptability in II 5.3 Design Rules to Manage Dynamic Complexity – The Internet Case 5.3.1 Modularization of II 5.3.2 Design Rules for Dynamic Complexity in II’s 5.3.3 Design Rules for Dynamic Complexity in the Design for II 5.3.3.1 Design Rules for the Bootstrap Problem 5.3.3.1.1 Design Rules for Principle 1: Design Initially for Direct Usefulness 5.3.3.1.2 Design Rules for Principle 2: Build on Installed Bases 5.3.3.1.3 Design Rules for Principle 3: Expand Installed Base with Persuasive Enrollment Tactics 5.3.3.2 Design Rules for the Adaptation Problem 5.3.3.2.1 Design Rules for Principle 4: Make the Organization of IT Capabilities Simple 5.3.3.2.2 Design Rules for Principle 5: Modularize the II 5.4 Transformation of Large Scale IIs: Internet in Scandinavia 5.4.1 Background and Status, 1983–1985 5.4.1.1 Networks 5.4.1.2 Ideologies and Universal Solutions 5.4.2 Nordunet 5.4.2.1 Strategy One: a Universal Solution, i.e., OSI 5.4.2.2 Strategy Two: Intermediate, Short-term Solutions – The Nordunet Plug 5.4.2.3 From an Intermediate to a Permanent Solution 5.4.3 Lessons to Be Learned 5.4.3.1 Allowing Experimentation and Learning 5.4.3.2 User Involvement and Democratic Design Processes 5.4.3.3 Adaptation to Changing Environments 5.4.3.4 Living with Heterogeneity: Gateways as Final Solutions Notes References Part III: Internal and External Contributions of the Internet Chapter 6: Data Observatories: Decentralized Data and Interdisciplinary Research 6.1 Scientific Discourse on the Internet 6.2 The Challenges of Sharing Data and Observations 6.2.1 Data Sharing Infrastructures 6.2.2 Supporting Research Across Disciplines 6.3 The Case for Data and Observation Sharing Ecosystems 6.3.1 Data Observatory Concepts 6.3.2 Decentralization 6.3.3 Data-Driven Innovation 6.3.4 Evidence-Based Discourse 6.4 A Reference Architecture for Data Observatories 6.5 Deploying Decentralized Observatories 6.5.1 Technological Considerations 6.5.2 A Policy Perspective Notes References Chapter 7: Digitization, Internet and the Economics of Creative Industries 7.1 Paradigms of the ‘New’ Economy 7.2 Economic change in the creative economy 7.2.1 The Creative Economy 7.2.2 Creative Industries in the UK 7.2.3 Digitization and Copyright in the Creative Industries 7.3 Old and New Industrial Economics and the Creative Industries 7.3.1 New Economic Theories and the Creative Industries 7.3.2 Platform Economics: Two-/Multi-ided Markets 7.4 Supporting Creativity in the Digital Era: The Creator and the Creative Industries 7.4.1 Impact of Digitization on Creators’ Labor Markets 7.5 Final Remarks Notes References Chapter 8: Digital Surplus: Labor in the Information Age 8.1 Labor in the Information Age: Upgrading Complexity 8.2 Digital Surplus 8.3 Background and Similarities 8.4 Digital Capital and Material Capital 8.5 Reappropriation: Some Proposals for the Recovery of the Rights of Digital Workers 8.5.1 Reappropriation of Data 8.5.2 Direct Payment: The Digital Wage Notes References Part IV: The Internet and the Sciences Chapter 9: Biology and the Internet: Fake News and Covid-19 9.1 Biology in the Context of Relations between the Internet and Science 9.1.1 Two Main Forms of the Relationship 9.1.2 Instrumental and Substantive Contribution of the Web 9.2 Fake News and Covid-19 9.2.1 Problems Raised 9.2.2 Two Forms of Fake News: Misinformation and Disinformation 9.2.3 Routes to Deal with the Problems 9.3 Coda: Scientists as Advisors and Policy-Making Notes References Chapter 10: The Novelty of Communication Design on the Internet: Analysis of the Snapchat Case from the Sciences of the Artificial 10.1 The Sciences of Design as an Epistemological and Methodological Framework for the Analysis of Communicative Designs on the Internet 10.1.1 Types of Communicative Designs on the Internet 10.1.1.1 Designs with Longitudinal Novelty 10.1.1.2 Designs with Transversal Novelty 10.1.2 Historicity in Communicative Phenomena on the Network and Ontological Levels (Micro, Meso and Macro) 10.1.2.1 Historicity to Explain the Revolution of Communicative Designs 10.1.2.2 Micro, Meso and Macro Levels at the Structural and Dynamic Levels 10.2 A New Communicative Design on the Internet: Snapchat 10.2.1 The Communicative Structure of Snapchat: Epistemic Complexity and Ontological Complexity 10.2.2 Communicative Dynamics of Snapchat and Levels in Communication 10.2.3 Role of Agents in Snapchat: Individuals, Groups and Companies 10.3 Novelty Factors Provided by This New Social Network 10.3.1 Uniqueness of Content: Prevalence of Ephemerality 10.3.2 Volitional Aspects and Evaluative Rationality 10.4 Final Considerations Notes References Index of Names Subject Index