Encyclopedia of Ecology

Description

The groundbreaking Encyclopedia of Ecology provides an authoritative and comprehensive coverage of the complete field of ecology, from general to applied. It includes over 500 detailed entries, structured to provide the user with complete coverage of the core knowledge, accessed as intuitively as possible, and heavily cross-referenced. Written by an international team of leading experts, this revolutionary encyclopedia will serve as a one-stop-shop to concise, stand-alone articles to be used as a point of entry for undergraduate students, or as a tool for active researchers looking for the latest information in the field. Entries cover a range of topics, including: Behavioral Ecology Ecological Processes Ecological Modeling Ecological Engineering Ecological Indicators Ecological Informatics Ecosystems Ecotoxicology Evolutionary Ecology General Ecology Global Ecology Human Ecology System Ecology Front Cover Editorial Board Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Page Contents VOLUME 1 A B C VOLUME 2 D E F VOLUME 3 G H I K L M N O VOLUME 4 P R S VOLUME 5 T U V W X Contents by Subject Area BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY CHEMICAL ECOLOGY ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING ECOLOGICAL INDICATORS ECOLOGICAL INFORMATICS ECOLOGICAL MODELS ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES ECOLOGICAL STOICHIOMETRY ECOSYSTEMS ECOTOXICOLOGY EVOLUTIONARY ECOLOGY GENERAL ECOLOGY GLOBAL ECOLOGY HUMAN ECOLOGY PHILOSOPHY OF ECOLOGY POPULATION DYNAMICS SYSTEMS ECOLOGY Preface Guide to the Encyclopedia Permission Acknowledgments A Abiotic and Biotic Diversity in the Biosphere Introduction Model Living Matter Landscape Diversity Conclusion See also Further Reading Abundance Introduction Population Dynamics and Growth Models r-Selected versus K-Selected Organisms Factors Affecting Abundance See also Further Reading Abundance Biomass Comparison Method Introduction The Method Applications Problems and Their Solutions See also Further Reading Acclimation Acclimation versus Adaptation Do Plants Have a Particularly High Potential for Acclimation? Acclimation Patterns Depend on Species and the Severity of the Environment Principal Types of Adjustments: Plant Form, Function, and Lifecycle Acclimation Plant Form and Size Plant Function: Metabolism/Biochemistry Plant Life-Cycle Adjustments and Arrested States Responses to Specific Environmental Factors Low to High Solar Energy Availability: Shaded versus Sunny Environments Low to Favorable to Excessive Water Availability Low to Moderate to High Temperature High temperature stress Low temperature stress Low to high nutrient availability Oxidative Stress and Redox Signaling as Common Denominators in Stress Perception and Response See also Further Reading Acidification Introduction Acidification Processes in Soil and Bedrock Hydrogen Ion (H+) Sources to Soils Nutrient cation uptake and the consequences of biomass export Decomposition, root respiration, and the production of carbonic acid Soil organic matter and the production of soil organic acids H+ turnover within the nitrogen cycle Oxidation of reduced compounds Atmospheric deposition of acidifying compounds Hydrogen Ion (H+) Sinks Carbonate dissolution Silicate weathering Exchanger with variable loading Amorphous hydroxides or oxides of aluminum and iron Acidification of Groundwater, Freshwaters, and Oceans Acidification and Buffering in Ground- and Freshwaters Acidification of Oceans Consequences of Acidification Consequences of Soil Acidification Consequences of Freshwater Acidification Consequences of Eutrophication in Ecosystems Consequences of Ocean Acidification See also Further Reading Acute and Chronic Toxicity Introduction Principles Single Species Toxicity Assays Acute Toxicity Tests Chronic Toxicity Water Quality Criteria Toxicity Identification Evaluation Model Ecosystems Microcosms Mesocoms Artificial Streams Limnocorrals Experimental Lakes Field Surveys Bioaccumulation Endocrine Disruptors Real-Time Whole Organism Biomonitoring Watershed (TMDL) See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Adaptation Introduction Types of Adaptations Relevant to Population Dynamics Structural Adaptations Life-History Adaptations Behavioral Adaptations Physiological Adaptations Conclusion See also Further Reading Adaptive Agents Introduction: What Is an Adaptive Agent? Origins of Agent-Based Modeling Key Features of Agent-Based Models Modeling the Behavior of Adaptive Agents Agent-Agent Interactions Environment Applications of Agent-Based Models in Ecology Conclusion See also Further Reading Adaptive Cycle Succession Illustration of the Succession by Holling’s Cycle Holling’s Cycle and the Evolution See also Further Reading Adaptive Management and Integrative Assessments Background Confronting Complexity Integrative Assessments Adaptive Management Summary See also Further Reading Adsorption Introduction The Chemistry of Adsorption Equations for Adsorption Adsorption in Ecology See also Further Reading Age Structure and Population Dynamics Age Structure Effects in Age-Class-Structured Species Age Structure in Populations Effects of Female Age Structure Effects of Male Age Structure Effects of Age-Specific Mortality Compensatory Mortality in Age-Class-Structured Populations Cohort Effects Age-Class Structure and Population Regulation Age Structure Effects in Stage-Structured Species Dynamical Behavior of Stage-Structured Populations Stage Structuring and Colonization Ability Habitat and Population Dynamics of Different Life Stages See also Further Reading Age-Class Models Introduction Life Tables Age-Structured Models Compartmental Models Matrix Models Leslie Matrix Other Matrix Models Stochastic Models Summary See also Further Reading Agriculture A Short History of Agriculture Agricultural Lands Agricultural Inputs Agricultural Production Abandoned Agricultural Lands The Future of Agriculture See also Relevant Websites Agriculture Models Introduction Types of Agricultural Models History of Agricultural Models Agricultural Model Applications Managing Crop Production and Water Quality Evaluating Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Parameters and Processes Assessing Climate Change Effects in Agroecosystems Tools for Technology Transfer and Decision Support Current Technologies for Agricultural Model Development and Use Modular Components and Frameworks Geographic Information System-Based and Visual Modeling Interfaces Scaling Issues Integrated Assessment Approaches Field Research and Modeling Integration Future Research Needs for Agricultural System Models Summary and Conclusions See also Further Reading Agriculture Systems Introduction The Agroecosystem Abiotic Constraints Nutrients Crops, Varieties, and Cropping Systems Herbicides, Pesticides, and Fungicides Migration Biodiversity Other Ecosystem Services The Intelligent Choices See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Agroforestry Introduction Agroforestry in Practice Agroforestry: An Integrated Science and Practice Ecological Foundations of Agroforestry Ecosystem Services of Agroforestry Soil Productivity and Protection Biological Diversity in Working Landscapes Carbon Storage Water Quality and Environmental Amelioration Food and Nutritional Security Ecological Engineering: Agroforestry System Design Future Directions See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Air Quality Modeling Introduction Forecasting Systems and Urban Air Quality Information Online Chemical Modeling The Interaction between Air Quality Modeling and Health Risk Assessment Climate Change and Air Quality Modeling Scales of the Processes/Models and Scale-Interaction Aspects Operational Real-Time Air Quality Modeling Aerosol Treatment AQM for Providing Environmental Information Services for Citizens Examples of Applications Web-based integration Web services Conclusions Further Reading Relevant Websites Allee Effects Introduction Allee Effects at the Individual Level Allee Effects at the Population Level Single Populations Spatial Ecological Aspects Applications of the Science See also Further Reading Allometric Principles Introduction Examples of Allometric Principles Quantification of Openness See also Further Reading Allopatry Introduction Origin and Early Use Variants on the Basic Model Vicariant Speciation The genetics of vicariant speciation Evidence of selection Reinforcement Peripatric Speciation The genetics of peripatric speciation Evidence for and against peripatric speciation See also Further Reading Alpine Ecosystems and the High-Elevation Treeline Definitions and Boundaries The Alpine Treeline Alpine Plants Engineer Their Climatic Environment Alpine Ecosystem Processes Biodiversity in Alpine Ecosystems Alpine Ecosystems and Global Change See also Further Reading Alpine Forest Introduction Alpine Forest Biogeography The Abiotic Environment Aboveground Belowground Altitude versus Microclimate The Treeline Ecotone - Tree Distortion, Clustering, and Spacing Mechanisms of Treeline Formation Summary See also Further Reading Altruism Introduction The Birth of the Idea Altruism via Inclusive Fitness (Kin Selection) Semantics Examples Altruism via Group Selection Semantics Examples Altruism via Direct Fitness Semantics Examples Altruism via Enforcement Semantics Examples A Synthetic View of Altruism and Cooperation See also Further Reading Amensalism Introduction Amensalism in the Real World European Mussel Beds Galapagos Boobies Estimation of Interaction Coefficients See also Further Reading Ammonification Introduction Nitrogen Cycle Fixation Mineralization Aminization Ammonification Nitrification Ammonia and Ammonium in the Environment Soil Water Atmosphere See also Further Reading Animal Defense Strategies Introduction Mechanical Barriers Hiding, Camouflage, and Mimicry Arthropod Defense Beetle Defense Sequestration - Use of toxins from the food Lepidopteran/Hymenopteran Defense Egg defense Ant and Termite Defense Wasp and Bee Defense Millipede and Centipede Defense Spider Defense Scorpion Defense Amphibian Defense Reptile Defense Bird Defense Mammalian Defense Conclusions See also Further Reading Animal Home Ranges Introduction Ecological Correlates of Home Range Size Measurement and Analysis of Animal Home Range Patterns The Functional Significance of Animal Home Range Patterns Home Range Size and Population Social Structure Effects on Population Demography Secondary Ecological Interactions See also Further Reading Animal Physiology Animal Physiology Homeostasis and Regulation Nervous System Endocrine Systems Water and Ion Balance Aquatic Environments: Seawater Aquatic Environments: Freshwater Terrestrial Environments Excretion Gas Exchange Circulation Metabolism and Digestion Temperature Relations See also Further Reading Animal Prey Defenses Introduction Classifying Prey Defenses Classification of Defenses Based on the Predation Cycle Step 1 defenses: Prevent search Step 2 defenses: Prevent encounter Step 3 defenses: Prevent detection Step 4 defenses: Prevent attack Step 5 defenses: Prevent consumption Other classifications of defenses based on the predation cycle Permanent versus Inducible Defenses Costs of Defenses Cost-Benefit Analyses: Density Dependencies See also Further Reading Antagonistic and Synergistic Effects of Antifouling Chemicals in Mixture Introduction Materials and Methods Culture Conditions Antifouling Chemicals Tested Measurements of BLI Calculations on Percentage of INH and EC50 Calculation of MTIs Results and Discussion Toxicity Evaluation of Single Chemicals Toxicity Evaluations of Mixed Chemicals Detection of EC50 values of mixed chemicals Comparison of EC50 values of single and mixed chemicals Typical patterns of interaction of mixed chemicals MTI Analyses of Interactions Toxicity Enhancement with Cu2+ Conclusion See also Further Reading Anthropospheric and Anthropogenic Impact on the Biosphere Introduction World Human Population, Energy Food Demand, and Energy Consumption Anthropogenic Impact on the Global Biogeochemical Cycles Anthropogenic Impact on Chemical Composition of the Biosphere Global Land Use: Agriculture and Urbanization Industrial Revolution, Anthropocentrism, and the Biosphere Degradation Conclusion: Philosophy of the Biosphere See also Further Reading Antibiotics in Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems Introduction Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products Antibiotics and Antimicrobial Agents Occurrence and Fate of Antibiotics in the Environment Occurrence Environmental Fate Ecological Effects of Antibiotics Effects Analysis Considerations Single-Species Ecotoxicity Population, Community, and Ecosystem Responses Ecological Risk Assessment of Antibiotics Prospective Risk Assessments Hot Spots for Retrospective Risk Assessments Conclusions and Recommendations See also Further Reading Antipredation Behavior Introduction Group Size and Antipredator Behaviors Behavioral Tradeoffs Associated with Predation Alarm Calls Prey Approaching Their Predators Interpopulational Differences in Antipredator Behavior Social Learning and Antipredator Behavior Predation and Hatching Time See also Further Reading Application of Ecological Informatics Introduction Ecological Systems Ecological Informatics Examples Example 1 Example 2**Demonstration program will be available through the first author by an email request. Goals Application The Future See also Further Reading Applied Ecology Applied Ecology Some Iconic Examples Foundation in the Fundamentals What Do Applied Ecologists Do? Success through Communication and Engagement Summary See also Further Reading Aquatic Organisms Introduction What Is Population Dynamics? Famine and Fate! Top-Down and Bottom-Up New and Improved Methods in Population Dynamic Research Human Interests and Impacts See also Further Reading Artificial Neural Networks Introduction Biological Inspiration Supervised Learning Algorithms (MLP) Structure of MLP Backpropagation Algorithm Forward-propagating step Backward-propagating step Training the network Testing the network Overtraining of the network MLP Applications in Ecological Studies Data set Preprocessing and MLP model training Results Unsupervised Learning Algorithm SOM Algorithm Map Quality Measures Map Size of the SOM Clustering SOM Units Component Planes SOM Application in Ecological Studies See also Further Reading Artificial Neural Networks: Temporal Networks Introduction Supervised Temporal Networks Hopfield Networks Bidirectional Associative Memory Time-Delay Neural Networks Recurrent Networks: Back-Propagation Jordan Network Elman Network Real-Time Recurrent Network Unsupervised Temporal Networks Examples of Temporal Networks Real-Time Recurrent Network Recurrent Self-Organizing Map Future Direction See also Further Reading Ascendency Introduction Total System Throughput Average Mutual Information Entropy Entropy and Binary Searches Joint Entropy Conditional Entropies Information Maximal and Minimal AMI Ascendency, Capacity, and Overhead Applications Ecosystem ecology Ascendency and Seasonal Variations Ecosystem Health and Integrity Sustainability See also Further Reading Assimilative Capacity Defining Assimilative Capacity Application of Assimilative Capacity to the TMDL Process See also Further Reading Association Introduction Types of Associations Intimacy: Casual to Obligate Associations Benefits: Parasitism to Mutualism Evolution of Associations Selection for Association The Coevolutionary Arms Race Specialization Ecology of Associations Context Dependency Community and Ecosystem Consequences See also Further Reading Astrobiology Introduction Our Solar System Mars Europa Enceladus Titan Planets around Other Stars Mars Future See also Further Reading Atmospheric Deposition Introduction Deposition of Gases Deposition of Highly Reactive Gases Deposition of Gases Controlled by Stomatal Resistance Deposition of Greenhouse Gases Deposition of Gaseous Contaminants Dry Deposition of Particles Dry Deposition of Particles to Vegetative Canopies Dry Deposition Measurements Dry Deposition of Particles to Water Surfaces Dry Deposition of Coarse Particles Wet Deposition of Particles Below-Cloud Scavenging Measurements and Modeling of Atmospheric Deposition in Major International Programs Summary See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Autecology See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Autocatalysis Introduction Autocatalysis in Ecology Centripetality and Agency See also Further Reading Autotrophs Introduction Photosynthesis Primary Productivity Net Primary Productivity Net Ecosystem Productivity Autotrophic Specializations: The CO2-Concentrating Mechanisms DIC Pumping C4 Photosynthesis CAM Photosynthesis Environmental Effects on Photosynthesis and Primary Productivity Autotrophs and Global Change See also Further Reading Average Taxonomic Diversity and Distinctness Introduction The Method Sampling Properties Expected Distinctness Tests Dependence on Habitat Applications See also Further Reading B Bayesian Networks Introduction Definition of BNs Building Models Specifying the Structure Specifying the Conditional Probabilities Learning the Conditional Probabilities Learning the Structure Using Models Prediction Inference Explanation Intervention Decision Special Cases Hierarchical Models Dynamic Models Integrated Models See also Further Reading Behavioral and Ecological Genetics Introduction to Genetical Terms Genes for Behavior? Relationship and Kinship Heritabilities and Selection Experiments Single Gene Effects on Behavior Population Genetics for Small Populations See also Further Reading Benthic Response Index Introduction Case Study Index Validation Comparison See also Further Reading Benzene Introduction Chemistry and Physical Properties of Benzene Anthropogenic Sources of Benzene Environmental Persistence of Benzene Uptake and Metabolism of Benzene Organ-Specific Toxicity Ecological Significance of Benzene Summary See also Further Reading Berger-Parker Index Introduction Origins of the Berger-Parker Index for Measuring Dominance Applications of the Berger-Parker Index The Berger-Parker Index in Comparison to Other Indices Summary See also Further Reading Bifurcation Introduction Basic Types of Bifurcation Saddle-Node Bifurcation Transcritical Bifurcation Pitchfork Bifurcation Supercritical pitchfork bifurcation Subcritical pitchfork bifurcation Hopf Bifurcation Bifurcation Analysis Basic Principles Bifurcation Analysis of the Logistic Model Bifurcation Analysis of an Impulsive Three-Species Predator-Prey Model Equilibrium Period-doubling bifurcation Chaos Period-halving bifurcation Chaos Period-halving bifurcation Spatial Turing Bifurcation Conclusions and Remarks See also Further Reading Bioaccumulation Definition Assessing Bioaccumulation Processes Affecting Bioaccumulation Compound Specific - Chemical Factors Animal Specific - Biological Factors Importance and Use See also Further Reading Bioavailability Introduction Defining Bioavailability Bioavailability Processes Physical-Chemical Properties of Bioavailable Contaminants Effect of Environmental Chemistry on Contaminant Bioavailability Effects of Time on Bioavailability in Ecotoxicology Bioavailability in Ecological Risk Assessment Tools for Characterization and Measurements of Bioavailability Summary See also Further Reading Biodegradability Introduction Climatic Conditions Ecotoxicology Ecotoxicology in Aquatic Ecosystems Indicator Organisms Ecotoxicology in Soil Fate of Organic Chemicals in the Environment Biodegradability Recalcitrant Compounds Cometabolism Threshold Concentration Acclimation Period Abiotic Factors Bioavailability Accessibility Bioavailability in Soil Temperature Effect of pH Inorganic Nutrients Alternate Substrates Biotic Factors Synergism Predation Testing of Biodegradability Methods of Biodegradability Assessment Bioremediation: Enhancement of Degradation Inoculation Failures of Bioremediation Explanation of Failures Potential of Genetically Engineered Microorganisms in Bioremediation See also Further Reading Biodegradation Introduction Biodegradation Rate Wastewater Treatment Toxic Substances Units See also Further Reading Biodiversity Introduction Metrics of Biodiversity Spatial Scales of Diversity Time Course of Biodiversity through Geological Time Global Magnitude of Biodiversity Geographic Distribution of Biodiversity Valuation of Biodiversity See also Further Reading Biogeochemical Approaches to Environmental Risk Assessment Introduction Environmental Risk Assessment Biogeochemical Approaches to Environmental Risk Assessment Critical Load and Level Approach for Assessment of Ecosystem Risks Quantitative Nature of the CLL Approach Scope of the CLL Approach CLL Approach and Ecosystem, Risk Analysis CLL Approach and EIA Baseline Studies CLL Approach and Impact Mitigation Input Data Requirements Credibility of the CLL Approach Is Relatively High Progressive Update and Improvement Usability of CLL Uncertainty in IRA and ERA Calculations Summary See also Further Reading Relevant Website Biogeochemical Models Introduction Modeling Approaches Conceptual and Descriptive Models Chemistry-Type Models Organism is ignored Organism is included as reactant or product Organism is included as catalyst Biology-Type Models Passive uptake and excretion Active uptake and excretion Empirical Models Integrated Ecology and Biogeochemistry Models Role of Ecological Models in Biogeochemical Research Integrating Ecological and Biogeochemical Models Example 1: Aquatic Environment Example 2: Terrestrial/Soil Environment Past, Present, and Future of Integrated Ecological and Biogeochemical Modeling Grand Challenge: Scaling Problem Case Study: Arsenic Transformation by Phytoplankton See also Further Reading Biogeocoenosis as an Elementary Unit of Biogeochemical Work in the Biosphere Introduction Biogeocoenosis Biogeocoenotic Process Biogeocoenosis and the Biosphere Reductionism and Holism Summary See also Further Reading Biological Control Models Introduction A Brief History Types of Models General Models Predator Responses The Biological Control Paradox Specific Models of Biological Control Model Uses for Differing Biological Control Approaches Classical Biological Control Augmentative, Inoculative, and Inundative Biological Control Conservation Biological Control Conclusion See also Further Reading Biological Integrity Integrity: The Natural State Moving Biological Integrity from Concept to Measurement Selecting Metrics Properties of a Multimetric Biological Index Application of Multimetric Biological Indexes Summary See also Further Reading Biological Nitrogen Fixation Introduction Nitrogen-Fixing Organisms Nitrogenase and Nitrogen Fixation Ammonia Assimilation Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation Rhizobia-Legume Symbiosis Frankia-Dicotyledon Symbiosis Endophytic Diazotrophic Bacteria-Cereal Association Nitrogen Fixation in Free-Living Cyanobacteria See also Further Reading Biological Rhythms Introduction Basic Processes Environment, Endogenesis, Entrainment Rhythmic Variables Entraining Agents Substrates Ecological Aspects Evolutionary Advantage Diurnality and Nocturnality Phenomenology Causality Seasonal Adjustments Future Directions See also Further Reading Biological Wastewater Treatment Systems Introduction Life and Nutrient Transformation Processes The Cell The Microbial Community Microbial Carbon and Phosphorus Processes Respiration Precipitation and cellular uptake of phosphorus Nitrogen Transformation Processes Mineralization and immobilization Nitrification Denitrification Anaerobic ammonium oxidation Coupling between Microbiology and Water Circulation Reaction Kinetics in Biological Treatment Systems Coupling of water circulation and microbiology Coupled enzyme kinetics and bacterial growth Measurements of denitrification rates Biological Wastewater Treatment Systems Treatment Wetlands Classification of wetlands Functionality of FWS wetlands Functionality of SSF wetlands WWTPs - The Activated Sludge Process General Continuous flow systems and SBRs The biological process Nutrient removal capacity Enhanced nitrogen and phosphorus reduction Regulation and simulation models Strengths and weaknesses of WWTP Perspective on Biological Wastewater Treatment See also Further Reading Biomagnification Introduction Definitions and Terminology Related to Biomagnification Empirical Field Data Supporting Biomagnification Mechanism of Biomagnification Dietary Exposure Nondietary Mechanisms Explaining Biomagnification Summary See also Further Reading Biomass Definition Importance Quantities of Biomass Measurement of Biomass Changes in Biomass See also Further Reading Biomass, Gross Production, and Net Production Introduction Definitions of Productivity Major Living Organisms of Ecosystems Ecological Pyramids The Time Element Energy Subsidy The Green Revolution A Universal Energy Flow Model The Distribution of Primary Production in Different Ecosystems Human Use of Primary Production Summary See also Further Reading Biophilia Evidence Relating Contact with Nature to Human Health and Well-Being Decline in Contact with Nature in Modern Urban Society See also Further Reading Biosphere: Vernadsky’s Concept Introduction Basic Idea Living and Nonliving Matter, Their Interaction and Cosmogonic View Concept of the Biosphere, Definition of Term, and Method of Analysis Empirical Generalization Method The System of Axioms The Future of the Concept: Noösphere and the Modern Perspective See also Further Reading Biotopes Introduction Biotope, Niche, and Ecosystem Processes Biotope Space, Species Richness, and Ecosystem Functioning Community Succession and Biotope Changes Biotope and Nature Conservation See also Further Reading Body Residues Body Residues in Environmental Toxicology See also Further Reading Relevant Website Body Size, Energetics, and Evolution Introduction Body Size Matters Biological Scaling Body Size, Energetics, and Food Acquisition The Influence of Temperature Factors Influencing Body Size over Space and Evolutionary Time Bergmann’s Rule Island Rule Cope’s Rule Patterns at Higher Taxonomic Levels See also Further Reading Body-Size Patterns Background The Problem of Measuring Body Size Population and Species-Level Patterns Range-Size Patterns Community Level Patterns Body Size-Abundance Distributions Taxonomically based size-abundance distributions Nontaxonomically based size-abundance distributions Body Size-Energy Use Distributions Body-Size-Species Distributions Body-Size Ratios Decoding Mechanisms See also Further Reading Boltzmann Learning Limitations of the Hopfield Network Model Algorithm Restricted Boltzmann Machine Applications of the Boltzmann Machine See also Further Reading BorealForest Introduction Climate and Soils Forest Structure and Species Animals Biodiversity Ecosystem Dynamics Conservation and Global Issues See also Further Reading Botanical Gardens Gardens for Systematic Study The Gardens of the Ancients Recreating Eden The Gardens of Discovery Botanic Gardens in Colonies The Intrinsic Value of Biodiversity and Nature Education and the Future See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Buffer Zones Introduction Appointing the Zone Regulation within the Zone Types of Buffer Zones and Their Function Case Study - Ammonia Buffer Zones in Denmark See also Further Reading Relevant Website C Calcium Cycle Introduction Importance of Calcium to Ecosystems Terrestrial Ecosystems Marine Ecosystems The Global Calcium Cycle Sources of Calcium to Terrestrial and Marine Ecosystems The Production and Solubility of Calcium Biominerals in the Ocean Ecological Consequences of Anthropogenic Perturbations to the Calcium Cycle Acid Deposition Anthropogenic Impacts on the Atmospheric Dry Deposition of Calcium Effects of Increased Carbon Dioxide on Terrestrial Ecosystems Carbon Dioxide, Calcium Biominerals, and Marine Ecology Tracking Calcium Cycling in Biogeochemical Systems The Future See also Further Reading Cannibalism Introduction Taxonomic Distribution Contexts of Cannibalism Effects of Cannibalism on the Dynamics of Populations and the Structure of Communities Evolution of Cannibalism: Evaluating the Costs and Benefits Cannibalistic Polyphenism Summary See also Further Reading Carbon Cycle Introduction Turnover of Carbon in the Biosphere Carbon Fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems Comparison of Carbon Biogeochemical Processes in Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems Carbon Dioxide Interactions in Air-Sea Water System Global Carbon Fluxes Global Climate Changes and Critical Loads of Sulfur and Nitrogen in the European Ecosystems Summary See also Further Reading Carrying Capacity Basic Ecology Applied Ecology Conclusions See also Further Reading Catastrophe Theory Introduction The Fold Catastrophe An Ecological Example Catastrophe Manifolds Catastrophes in Ecology See also Further Reading Caves Caves Cave Environments Aquatic Environments Terrestrial Environments Food Resources Cave Communities Guano Communities Deep Cave Communities Adaptations to Cave Life Other Cave-Like Habitats Case Study: Hawailsquoi Food Web Nonindigenous Species Succession Perspective See also Further Reading Cellular Automata Introduction Cellular Automata in General Finite Automata Definition and Examples of Cellular Automata Cellular Automata as Ecological Models History of Cellular Automata A Strange Expectation The Early Models A Resurgence of Interest Applications in Ecology How Good Are the Models? A Typology of Applications An Example Application See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Chaos Chaos Theory Bifurcation At the Edge of Chaos See also Further Reading Chemical Communication Introduction Pheromones Primer Pheromones Releaser Pheromones Sex pheromones Alarm pheromones Aggregation pheromones Pheromones involved in marking home ranges and territories Social pheromones Recruitment pheromones Allelochemicals Kairomones Synomones Allomones See also Further Reading Chaparral Introduction The Ecological Community Community Succession Allelopathy Fire Community Recovery from Wildfires Seed Germination Seed Dispersal Future Threats and Management Regional Variation in Fire Regime See also Further Reading Classical and Augmentative Biological Control Glossary Definition and Scope of Biological Control Classical Biological Control Ecological Justification Pink Hibiscus Mealybug Waterhyacinth Description of the Process Choice of the target pest Pest identification and taxonomy Identification of the native range Surveys to collect natural enemies Importation to quarantine Host specificity and biology studies Release and colonization in the field Evaluation of efficacy Documentation of benefits Extent of Successful Use Economics Safety of Natural Enemy Importations Augmentative Biological Control History and Scope How Insectaries Turn Natural Enemies into Mass Market Products Find a suitable natural enemy Develop a mass rearing system Develop efficient harvest, storage, and shipping methods Provide clear release instructions Extent of Successful Use Indoor crops Outdoor crops Safety of Augmentative Biological Control Conclusion See also Further Reading Classification and Regression Trees Introduction Overview of the Fitting Process Splitting Rules For Regression Trees For Classification Trees Pruning Independent Test Set Cross-Validation 1-SE Rule Costs Costs of Explanatory Variables and Misclassification Cost of Tree Complexity Additional Tree-Fitting Issues Heteroscedasticity Linear Structure Competitors and Surrogates Missing Values Observation Weights Variable Importance Model Assessment Enhancements through Ensemble Methods Bagging and Boosting Random Forests Stochastic Gradient Boosting Software See also Further Reading Climate Change 1: Short-Term Dynamics Introduction Carbon Budget Components Fossil Components Dynamic Components Atmosphere Ocean Land Carbon Pools Carbon Sink Carbon Source Carbon Budget Human Intervention Biosphere Response Growth Rate of Atmospheric CO2 Net Oceanic Uptake Residual Terrestrial Uptake Carbon dioxide fertilization Nitrogen deposition Land-use management Fossil Fuel Combustion and Cement Production Land-Use Change Concluding Remarks See also Further Reading Climate Change 2: Long-Term Dynamics Introduction Global Carbon Cycle and the Biosphere Continental Growth Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and Climate Biotic Enhancement of Weathering Biological Productivity Carbonate Precipitation Hydrothermal Reactions Kerogen Atmospheric Oxygen Coevolution of the Biosphere-Geosphere System Summary Evolution of the Climate Evolution of the Biosphere Cambrian Explosion Phanerozoic Time Future Evolution See also Further Reading Climate Change 3: History and Current State Introduction Pre-Quaternary Climates Quaternary Climates The Pleistocene The Holocene The Climate of the Last Millennium Climate of the Preindustrial Era Climate of the Last 150 Years Summary and Discussion See also Further Reading Climate Change Models Introduction Climate and Climate Change Definition of Climate and Climate Change Natural Climate Variability and Anthropogenic Climate Change Climate Forcings Past Climate Changes Climate Change on Geological Timescale Abrupt Climate Changes Climate Change during Twentieth Century Future Climate Change Predictions Climate Change Prediction and Related Uncertainties Predicted Climate Change in the Twenty-First Century Climate Impact on Natural Ecosystems and Human Society Climate Models The Scientific Basis of Climate Modeling Types of Climate Models From Climate Models to Earth System Models Validation and Application of Climate Models See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Clines Cline Examples The Evolution of Clines at Equilibrium Using clines to estimate selection Using clines to estimate dispersal Clines and Parapatric Speciation See also Further Reading Coastal and Estuarine Environments Indices Based on Indicator Species Measures Based on the Occurrence of Indicator Species Bioaccumulator Indicator Species Indices Based on Ecological Strategies Indices Based on Diversity Indicators Based on Species Biomass and Abundance Indicators Integrating All Environment Information Indicators Thermodynamically Oriented or Based on Network Analysis See also Further Reading CoastalZoneManagement The Degradation of Coastal Waters Ecological Engineering for Eutrophication Management in Coastal Zones Dead Zones Hypoxia and Anoxia Harmful Algal Blooms Ecological Engineering of Coral Reefs Conclusions See also Further Reading Coastal Zone Restoration Introduction Dune Restoration The Dune Community Limiting Factors for Establishment Restoration and Ecosystem Development Tidal Wetland Restoration Tidal Marsh and Mangrove Communities Limiting Factors for Establishment Restoration and Ecosystem Development See also Further Reading Coevolution See also Further Reading Coevolution of the Biosphere and Climate Introduction What Is a Biogeochemical Cycle, the Biosphere, Climate? History of the Concept of Coevolution of Biosphere and Climate The Carbon Biogeochemical Cycle What Regulates the Long-Term Climate? Sources and Sinks: Equal at Steady State The Biotic Enhancement of Weathering and the Long-Term Carbon Cycle Biogeochemical Cycles of Oxygen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur and Their Influences on the Coevolution of Life and Climate The Habitability of Earth The Faint Young Sun Paradox and Its Solution The Temperature Constraint on Biologic Evolution From lsquoHothouse’ to lsquoIcehouse’: The Increase in Diversity of Habitats for Life Summary See also Further Reading Coevolutionary Research Introduction Mutualism Obligate Mutualists Fig-fig wasp Yucca-yucca moth Antagonism Arms Race Lodgepole pine and red crossbills Coevolutionary Alternation Mixed Ecological Interactions Interactions between Multiple Populations Geographic Mosaic of Coevolution Variable Mutualisms When Is It Coevolution? See also Further Reading Coexistence Introduction The Link between Population Dynamics and Coexistence Competition and Coexistence The Importance of Niche Differentiation for Coexistence The Roles of Predator-Prey Interactions and Density Dependence in Coexistence Tradeoffs and Species Coexistence Coexistence through Variable Supply of Young Coexistence Mediated by Disturbance Neutral Models of Coexistence Conclusion See also Further Reading Cognition and Behavioral Ecology See also Further Reading Colonization Introduction Factors Enhancing Colonization Ability Competition-Colonization Tradeoff Competition-Colonization Tradeoff and the Successional Mosaic Metapopulation Biology Island Biogeography Availability of New, Suitable Habitat on a Large Scale See also Further Reading Commensalisms Introduction Definitions Commensals in Plants The Spermosphere and the Rhizosphere The Phyllosphere Commensals in Animals The Skin The Oral Cavity The Gut See also Further Reading Communication Introduction What Is Communication? Signal. Signaler. Receiver. The Relationship between the Three Components Terms Commonly Used in Communication Transmission Medium Signal Modality Information Semiotics Toward a Definition of Communication Communication and the Environment Effects of the Physical Environment on Signal Form Effects of the Physical Environment on When and Where to Communicate Effects of the Social Environment on Signal Form Effects of the Social Environment on When and Where to Communicate Origin of Communication Behavior Current Issues and an Application Honesty and Handicaps in Communication Persistence and Payoff Asymmetries Conservation and Communication Summary See also Further Reading Community The Concept of a Community Community as a Superorganism Assemblages Why Are Communities Found in Nature? Collective Properties of Assemblages Do Ecologists Study Communities? See also Further Reading Competition and Behavior Introduction Exploitation and Interference Equality, Inequality, Asymmetry, and Monopolization Scramble and Contest Competition Territoriality and Behavioral Regulation of Population Density Ideal Free Distribution and Despotic Distribution Population Sources, Sinks, and Dispersal Related Phenomena Conclusion See also Further Reading Competition and Coexistence in Model Populations Introduction The Lotka-Volterra Equations Tilman’s Resource-Based Model See also Further Reading Competition and Competition Models Definitions Intraspecific Competition Logistic growth models Interspecific Competition Interspecific Competition and the Lotka-Volterra Model Competition Exclusion Tilman’s Model of Resource Competition See also Further Reading Composting and Formation of Humic Substances Definitions Production and Uses of Compost Nutrient Availability Physical Effects Chemical Effects Biological Effects See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Computer Languages The Computational Platform: Hardware, Operating Systems, and Libraries Low- and High-Level Languages Procedural Languages Object-Oriented Languages Compiled and Interpreted Languages Imperative and Declarative Languages Other Language Types Choosing a Language See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Conceptual Diagrams and Flow Diagrams Introduction Temporal Domain Spatial Domain Structural Domain Modeling Software Conclusions See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Connectance and Connectivity Introduction Measuring Connectivity Nearest-Neighbor Distance Metrics Using Patch Occupancy Data and Interpatch Distances Spatial Pattern Indices Using Spatially Explicit Habitat Data Scale-Area Slope Indices Using Spatially Incomplete Data Graph-Theoretic Measures Using Dispersal Data and Spatially Explicit Habitat Data Buffer Radius and Incidence Function Metrics Using Spatially Explicit Patch Occupancy Data, Patch Area, and Dispersal Data Observed Movement Rates Requiring Individual Movement Data Measuring Connectivity: Putting It All Together Corridors Summary See also Further Reading Conservation Biological Control and Biopesticides in Agricultural Modern Agriculture Conservation Biological Control Insects Plant Pathogens Biopesticides Insects and Pathogens Biopesticides - Areas of Use Plant pathogens Microorganism biopesticides for the management of invertebrate pests Conclusion See also Further Reading Relevant Website Constructed Wetlands, Subsurface Flow Introduction CWs with HSSF Major Design Parameters Pretreatment Vegetated beds Distribution and collection of wastewater Vegetation Removal mechanisms Treatment efficiency Capital and O&M costs Comparison with conventional treatment systems CWs with Vertical Subsurface Flow Design Parameters Treatment Efficiency CWs with Vertical Upflow Willow Systems with Zero Discharge Hybrid CWs VF-HF Systems HF-VF Systems See also Further Reading Relevant Website Constructed Wetlands, Surface Flow Introduction CWs with Emergent Macrophytes CWs with Floating Mats of Emergent Plants CWs with Free-Floating Macrophytes CWs with Water Hyacinth CWs with Duckweed CWs with Floating-Leaved Macrophytes CWs with Submerged Macrophytes See also Further Reading Cooperation Background Kin Selection Conclusion See also Further Reading Copper Introduction Chemistry of Copper Occurrence and Mining of Copper Copper Production and Usage Biochemistry Copper Requirements and Deficiencies Copper Toxicity Copper as a Pollutant Sources of Copper Pollution Copper in the Environment and Copper Pollution See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Coral Reefs Introduction The Coral-Algal Mutualism Ecological Interactions on Coral Reefs Competition Herbivory Predation Disturbance Positive Interactions Replenishment of Coral Reefs: The Role of Reproduction and Recruitment in the Ecology of Reefs Landscape Ecology of Coral Reefs: Connections of Coral Reefs to Mangrove and Seagrass Systems Geographic Distribution of Coral Reefs Threats to Coral Reefs Coral Bleaching Disease and the Structure of Coral Reef Communities Shifting Baselines, Overfishing, and the Altered Food Webs of Coral Reefs Protection and Resurrection of Coral Reefs Summary See also Further Reading Crude Oil, Oil, Gasoline and Petrol Introduction Composition and Chemistry of Crude Oil and Gasoline Crude Oil Gasoline Fate of Oil Transport of Oil Surface transport Vertical transport Horizontal subsurface transport Weathering of Oil Evaporation Photooxidation Water-in-oil emulsification Biodegradation Fate of Oil Droplets Entrainment to water column Partitioning, adherence, and sedimentation Toxic Effects of Oils on Marine Organisms and Ecosystems General Toxic Mechanisms PAH Toxicity Toxic Impacts on Marine Organisms Invertebrates Vertebrates - fishes Marine mammals and birds Long-Term Impacts on Ecosystems The Exxon Valdez oil spill as an example Biomarkers in Ecological Risk Assessment Summary and Conclusions Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Cybernetics Introduction Solar Energy and Information Stores and Fluxes of Information in the Natural Biota and Civilization Stores of Information Fluxes of Information Exchange Control Processes in Ecological Systems See also Further Reading Cycling and Cycling Indices Introduction Definition of Cycle Cycles in Food Webs Structure of Cycles in Ecological Networks: Strongly Connected Components Quantifying Cycled Fraction: Finn’s Cycling Index Limitations of FCI Number of Cycles in Food Webs Finding Cycles in Ecological Networks Removing Cycles in Ecological Networks Ecological Applications of Cycle Analysis See also Further Reading D Data Mining Introduction Data Mining Tasks Data Classification and Regression Clustering Association Analysis Other Data Mining Tasks Patterns Equations Decision Trees Predictive Rules Data Mining Algorithms Linear and Multiple Regression Top-down Induction of Decision Trees The Covering Algorithm for Rule Induction Data Mining Applications in Ecological Modeling Modeling Population Dynamics Case study: Modeling algal growth in the Lagoon of Venice Case study: Phytoplankton growth in Lake Glumsoe Case study: Modeling the interactions of a red deer population with the new growth in a forest Habitat-Suitability Modeling Summary Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Death Immediate Causes of Death Mortality Rate Survivorship Curves and Life Tables Key-Factor Analysis Factors Affecting Mortality Rates Density-Dependent Mortality Processes Spatial Variation in Mortality Rates Effect of Mortality on Population Dynamics See also Further Reading Decomposition and Mineralization Introduction Mechanisms and Processes Overview Decomposers Temporal and Spatial Patterns Controlling Factors Biotic factors Substrate quality and quantity Microbial community composition Abiotic factors Temperature Soil moisture Dynamics of Selected Ecosystems Arid and Semiarid Environments Aquatic Ecosystems Boreal Forests Anthropogenic Impacts Effects of N Deposition Effects of Heavy Metal Pollution Common Study Methods Decomposition Methods Mineralization Methods See also Further Reading Defense Strategies of Marine and Aquatic Organisms Introduction Mechanical Defense and Defensive Behavior Defense of Microalgae and Macroalgae Sea Grass Defense Toxins of Cyanobacteria Sponge Defense Coral Defense Bryozoan Defense Defense of Other Marine Invertebrates Fish Defense Marine Crustacean Defense Conclusions See also Further Reading Deforestation Introduction Major Definitions Forest Cover Deforestation Desertification Major Drivers of Deforestation and Degradation Ecological Consequences of Deforestation Understanding the Extent of Deforestation and Degradation of Forests Estimation of Carbon Emissions Conclusion: Managing Deforestation See also Further Reading Demography Introduction Definition of Generation Time The lsquoSlow-Fast’ Continuum of Life-History Variation Decomposing Population Dynamics Life-History Correlates of Demographic Stochasticity in Birds A General Definition of Density Dependence of Age-Structured Populations Population Dynamics of Birds in Relation to Generation Time Conclusion Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Denitrification Denitrification Process of Denitrification Microorganisms Involved in Denitrification Pathways Heterotrophic denitrification Nitrifier denitrification Chemodenitrification Measurements of Denitrification Requirements for Denitrification to Occur Control of denitrification in terrestrial systems Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon Control of denitrification in aquatic systems Control of denitrification by pH and temperature pH Temperature Diurnal patterns Models of Denitrification See also Further Reading Desert Streams Distribution and Physical Template Temporal Dynamics Biota Energetics Nutrient Dynamics Human Modifications See also Further Reading Deserts Geography Definition of Deserts Where Are Deserts Found? Desert Landforms What Is Special about Desert Climates? Desert Soils Biogeography and Biodiversity General Diversity Ecological Role and Diversity of Microorganisms Desert Flora Desert Fauna Convergence of Desert Life Forms Ecophysiology and Life Strategies Strategies for Coping with Drought Water Uptake in Deserts Animals Plants (and microorganisms) Strategies to Cope with Unpredictable Water Resources System Ecology (Ecosystem and Communities) Production Resource-Consumer Relationships (Trophic Interactions) Decomposition Herbivory Predation Parasitism Nontrophic Species Interactions Human Ecology Origin and History Desert Economy Human Impact on Deserts Endangered Species Desert Research See also Further Reading Design Principles Introduction Overarching Principles Thermodynamics and Conservation of Mass and Energy Energy flow Material recycling Natural Selection and Evolution Self-organization Disturbance and thresholds Common Steps for Ecological Engineering Design See also Further Reading Detritus Introduction Origin Composition Decomposition Leaf litter Leaf litter decomposition on land Decomposition in water Ecological Significance Vegetal detritus Macrophyte detritus Woody detritus Animal detritus Carrion Fecal detritus See also Further Reading Development Capacity Introduction Ecosystem Network Analysis Total System Throughput and Average Mutual Information Ascendency and Development Capacity System Overhead and Its Constitutive Terms Number of Roles and Development Capacity Ecological Applications See also Further Reading Relevant Website Dioxin Introduction Environmental Fate and Exposure Considerations Atmospheric Fate Considerations Aquatic Fate Considerations Terrestrial Fate Considerations Bioaccumulation and Food Chain Transfers Overview of Ecotoxicological Studies Cytochrome P450-Mediated Effects Immune System Suppression Porphyria Cancer Promotion Disruption of Vitamin A Metabolism Hormone Effects Ecotoxicity in Different Taxonomic Groups Dioxin TEFs Plants Invertebrates Amphibians Reptiles Fish Birds Mammals Major Gaps in Knowledge Summary See also Further Reading Dispersal-Migration Introduction Dispersal Patterns Modeling Dispersal Measuring Dispersal Direct Measures Indirect Methods See also Further Reading Dominance Introduction Patterns of Dominance Measure-Based Patterns Spatial and Temporal Patterns Mechanisms of Dominance Consequences of Dominance Local Communities Competition Consumption Facilitation Dominance in Metacommunities Dominance in Regional Species Pools See also Further Reading Dominance and Its Evolution Introduction Empirical Facts Estimates of Dominance Modification of Dominance Explanations of Dominance and Its Evolution Basic Scenarios for the Evolution of Dominance Mechanistic Explanations for Dominance: The Case of Metabolism Evolutionary Explanations for Dominance See also Further Reading Dormancy Introduction Cryptobiosis Diapause and Quiescence Hibernation (Winter Dormancy) Estivation (Summer Dormancy) Thermal and Energetic Physiology of Torpor Cues for Dormancy Ectothermic Animals and Plants Endothermic Animals Ecological Consequences of Dormancy See also Further Reading Dose-Response Introduction Stressor Dose-Response, and Ecological Risk Assessment Types of Environmental Stressors Stressor Doses Biotic Stressors Abiotic Stressors Physical stressors Chemical stressors Response Types of Responses Potentiating response Synergistic response Additive response Antagonistic response Stressor Dose-Response Stressor Dose-Response Relationship Analysis of Dose-Response Data Issues in Dose-Response Relationship in Ecological Risk Assessment See also Further Reading Driver–Pressure–State–Impact–Response Introduction Drivers Pressure State Impact Response Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response See also Further Reading Dunes Introduction Dune Origin and Formation Abiotic Factors Sand Movement Nutrients Salinity Water Temperature Habitats Biological Factors Facilitation and Succession Competition, Predation, Disease Symbiotic Relations See also Further Reading E Eco-Exergy as an Ecosystem Health Indicator Introduction Eco-Exergy Index Application of Eco-Exergy for the Health Assessment of Ecosystems See also Further Reading Eco-Exergy to Emergy Flow Ratio Introduction The Ratio of Eco-Exergy to Emergy Flow Eco-Exergy to Emergy Flow Ratio as a Relation between Emergy and Information The Relation between the Eco-Exergy to Empower Ratio and the Maximum Power and the Maximum Eco-Exergy Principles The Ratio of DeltaEx to DeltaEm See also Further Reading Ecological Catastrophe Introduction Ecological Impact of Major Chemical Pollutions Release of Mercury at Minamata, Japan A Chemical Plant Accident at Seveso, Italy A Chemical Plant Accident at Bhopal, India An Explosion at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, Ukraine A Fire at the Sandoz Agrochemical Warehouse, Switzerland The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill at, Prince William Sound, Alaska Break of a Holding Lagoon of a Zinc Mine at Aznalcóllar Lessons Learned Conclusions See also Further Reading Ecological Complexity Complexity as a Systems Concept Surprise-Generating Mechanisms Emergent Phenomena Ecological Complexity lsquoWould-Be’ Worlds Conclusions See also Further Reading Ecological Economics 1 Basic Worldview and Goals History Links with Natural Sciences Material and Energy Flows Accounting for Natural Capital, Ecological Limits, and Sustainable Scale Valuation of Ecological Services Integrated Ecological Economic Modeling and Assessment Summary and Conclusions See also Further Reading Ecological Economics 2 Introduction See also Further Reading Ecological Effects of Acidic Deposition Introduction Acidic Deposition Effects of Acidic Deposition on Forest Ecosystems Effects of Acidic Deposition on Forest Soils Loss of calcium and other nutrient cations Mobilization of aluminum Effects of Acidic Deposition on Trees Red spruce Sugar maple Effects of Acidic Deposition on Freshwater Aquatic Ecosystems Surface Water Acidification Response of Aquatic Biota to Acidification of Surface Waters by Acidic Deposition See also Further Reading Ecological Efficiency Definitions Measuring Ecological Efficiency The Relation between Population Maintenance and Ecological Efficiency Farmers Are Not Predators Efficiency, Yield, and Stability Ecological Efficiency and Evolution Thermodynamics and Ecological Efficiency See also Further Reading Ecological Engineering: Overview What Is Ecological Engineering? Classification of Ecotechnology See also Further Reading Ecological Feminism Historical Overview Ecofeminism and Animals Race, Class, and Social Isolation Essentialism Conclusion See also Further Reading Ecological Footprint Introduction Metabolism: An Ecological Model of Society Fundamental Assumptions Ecological Footprint and Biocapacity Accounting Calculating Demand: Footprint Calculating Supply: Biocapacity The Common Unit: Global Hectares Methodology Data Sources Yield Factors and Equivalence Factors Calculating Footprint and Biocapacity Key Global and Regional Results The Footprint of Consumption Activities Continued Indicator Development See also Further Reading Ecological Health Indicators Indicators Environmental Change and Ecological Indicators Integrity: The Benchmark From Environmental to Ecological Indicators Characteristics of Ecological Indicators Ecological Attributes Worth Measuring How Ecological Indicators Are Used See also Further Reading EcologicalInformatics:Overview Introduction Feature Areas Ecological Informatics by Computational Analysis and Synthesis of Ecological Data Artificial Neural Networks Supervised feedforward ANN Supervised feedback ANN Nonsupervised ANN Evolutionary Algorithms Future Directions See also Further Reading Ecological Models, Optimization Introduction Where Do Optimization Methods and Algorithms Fit in Ecological and Environmental Modeling? Mathematical Methods to Find Optimal Solutions Overview Representation of Search Spaces Differentiable Objective Functions Linear Optimization Methods Simulated Annealing Convex Global Underestimator Application of GAs in Environmental Modeling Problem Formulation Definition of the Optimization Problem Design of the GA Combination of Several Optimization Algorithms Results, Conclusion, and Evaluation Summary and Outlook See also Further Reading Ecological Network Analysis, Ascendency Introduction Principle of Ascendency Ascendency Conditional probabilities and ecosystem complexity Average mutual information Ascendency Development Capacity Hc or Overhead Imports Exports Respiration Redundancy Biomass Inclusive Ascendency Limiting elements in compartments and limiting flows Ascendency Applications See also Further Reading Ecological Network Analysis, Energy Analysis Introduction Level of Analysis Steady-State Analysis: Energy and Nutrient Intensities Steady-State Analysis: Other Indicators Trophic Position Path Length Residence Time (tau) Indicators in Dynamic Systems Calculating Dynamic Indicators Simulations of Dynamic Indicators Applications Ecological Example: Four-Compartment Food Web Energy/Economic Example: Energy Intensity of Consumer Goods and Services, Energy Cost of Living Energy/Economic Example: Regressive Effects of an Energy Tax See also Further Reading Ecological Network Analysis, Environ Analysis Introduction Theoretical Development of Environ Analysis Data Requirements and Community Assembly Rules Methods and Sample Network Network Properties Dominance of Indirect Effects Network Homogenization Network Mutualism Environ Analysis Summary See also Further Reading Ecological Niche Introduction Concepts of Niche Niche as the Description of a Species’ Habitat Requirements Niche as Ecological Function of the Species Niche as a Species Position in a Community - Formalization of Ecological Niche Concept Fundamental and Realized Niche Competitive Exclusion Limiting Similarity, Species Packing - How Close Can Species Be to Each Other? Modes of Species Coexistence How Many Ecological Niches Are There? Ecological Niches and Patterns in Species Abundance and Distribution Niche Divergence and Resource Specialization Evolution of Niche Width Changing the Niche Space, Niche Construction, and Coevolution See also Further Reading Ecological Risk Assessment Introduction Definition of Ecological Risk Problem Formulation Analysis - Exposure Characterization Analysis - Effects Characterization Exposure-Response Relationships Risk Characterization Uncertainty See also Further Reading Ecological Stoichiometry: Overview Introduction Homeostasis and the Constraints of Mass Balance and Chemical Proportions The Biology of Elements Carbon Nitrogen Phosphorus Iron Contrasting Homeostasis in Plants and Animals Stoichiometry of Limiting Elements Life Histories Growth Rate Growth-Competition Tradeoffs Nutrient Cycling, Flux, and Dynamics Alteration of Community Composition and Ecosystem Dynamics through the Stoichiometry of Recycling Animal Growth: Stoichiometry and Food Quality Complex System Dynamics Driven by Stoichiometry Herbivore Extinction Due to Poor Food Quality Increased Primary Production Can Reduce Food Chain Production Large-Scale Stoichiometry See also Further Reading Ecological Systems Thinking Introduction Applied Systems Thinking Environmental Education Summary See also Further Reading Ecosystem Ecology Introduction Ecosystem Ecology Introduction History of the Ecosystem Concept Defining an Ecosystem Energy Flow in Ecosystems Biogeochemical Cycles Ecosystem Studies Human Influence on Ecosystems Summary See also Further Reading Relevant Website Ecosystem Health Indicators Introduction Ecosystem Health Assessment and Indicators Categories of Ecosystem Health Indicators Commonly Applied Ecosystem Health Indicators Indicators Based on the Abundance of Selected Species Saprobic classification Bellan’s pollution index AZTI Marine Biotic Index Bentix Macrofauna monitoring index Benthic response index Indicators Based on Concentration of Selected Elements Indicators Based on Ratios between Different Classes of Organisms or Elements Nygard’s algal index Diatoms/nondiatoms ratio Indicators Based on Ecological Strategies or Processes Process and rate indicators Indicators based on ecological strategies Index of r/K strategists Infaunal index Indicators Based on Ecosystem Composition and Structure Shannon-Wiener index Food webs Ascendency Systems Theoretical Holistic Indicators Vigor, organization, and resilience (V-O-R model) Exergy indices The holistic ecosystem health indicator NRCS indicator selection model Applied Methods of Ecosystem Health Assessment Ecosystem Health Index Method Ecological Model Method Direct Measurement Method Conclusion Summary See also Further Reading Ecosystem Patterns and Processes Introduction Nutrient Limitation of Ecosystem Production Efficiency in Elemental Use Primary Producers and Consumers Herbivory First-Order Detritivory Pools of Producer Biomass and Detritus Large- Scale Implications of Ecological Stoichiometry See also Further Reading Ecosystem Services Introduction Defining Ecosystem Services Tradeoffs in Managing the Flows of Ecosystem Services Examples of Ecosystem Services Pollination Services Provided by Bees Services Provided by Wetlands Services Provided by Forests Capturing the Value of Ecosystem Services Conclusions See also Further Reading Ecosystems What Is an Ecosystem? History Ecosystem Components and Properties Ecosystem Efficiency Large-Scale Shifts in Ecosystems Studying Ecosystem Dynamics Stable Isotopes Whole Ecosystem Experiments Using Management Policies as Ecosystem Experiments Ecosystem Function and Biodiversity Ecosystem Perspectives in Conservation Science Ecosystem Services Social-Ecological Systems, Humans as Key Ecosystem Components Ecosystem-Based Management See also Further Reading Ecotoxicological Model of Populations, Ecosystems, and Landscapes Introduction Need for Ecological Relevance in Risk Assessments Available Ecotoxicological Models for Ecological Risk Assessment Ecotoxicological Models and Weight-of-Evidence Approaches Objectives of Article Rationale for Use of Ecotoxicological Modeling in Risk Assessment Beyond the Traditional Ecological Risk Paradigm Uses of Ecotoxicological Models When to use an ecotoxicological model Selecting Ecotoxicological Models Classification of Ecotoxicological Models How to Select a Model for a Risk Assessment Characteristics of Available Models for Ecological Risk Assessment Linking model output with assessment endpoints and risk estimates Incorporating toxicological information into ecological models Linking with fate/transport models Example Applications of Ecotoxicological Models Population Model Case Study - Interpretation of Chronic Toxicity Test Data Ecosystem Model Case Study - AQUATOX Assessment of Pesticide Risks Model setup Results Conclusions Landscape Model Case Study - JABOWA Assessment of Atmospheric CO2 Increases on Forests Software for Ecotoxicological Modeling Future Developments in Ecotoxicological Modeling Linking Other Models to Ecological Models Wildlife resource selection models Chemical fate and transport models Dose-response models Spatially Explicit Models Ecological Modeling Systems Probabilistic Models Conclusions See also Further Reading Ecotoxicology Nomenclature: LC, LD, LOC, LOEC, MAC Introduction Regression-Derived Effect Metrics Effect Metrics Derived with Hypothesis Tests Inferring Consequences of Exposure See also Further Reading Ecotoxicology: The Focal Topics See also Further Reading Ecotoxicology: The History and Present Directions Introduction Scales of Study Biomolecule Cells and Tissues Organ and Organ Systems Whole Organism Population Community Ecosystems Current Trends in Ecotoxicology See also Further Reading Edaphic Factor Introduction The Edaphic Factor: Its Role in Shaping the Biotic World Components of the Edaphic Factor Texture Structure Depth Organic matter pH Ion availability The Edaphic Factor in Ecology Soils and Biogeography Soils and Invasive Species Plant Life on Selected Edaphic Conditions Evolution under Extreme Edaphic Conditions Conservation of the Biota of Extreme Geologies See also Further Reading Edge Effect See also Further Reading Emergent Properties Introduction The History of the Concept Emergence and Hierarchy Prebiological Emergence Protobiological Emergence Emergence in Biological Systems How Emergence Emerges Classification of Emergent Properties Quantifying Emergence See also Further Reading Emergy Introduction Energy Language, Energy Modeling, and Hierarchical Web Emergy Transformity Emergy and Transformity Emergy Algebra Emergy, Sustainability, and Its Indicators Emergy Applications Ecosystems Regional Analysis See also Further Reading Emergy and Network Analysis Definitions Emergy, Energy, and Quality Transformity and Specific Emergy Calculating UEVs Emergy and Hierarchy UEVs and Quality UEVs, Efficiency, and Integrity Emergy of the Geobiosphere: The Basis for Computing UEVs UEVs of Fuels and Some Common Products UEVs of Ecosystem Components Calculating UEVs from Network Flow Data Summary Comments See also Further Reading Relevant Website Empirical Models Introduction Types of Empirical Models Allometric Models Resource Response Models Terrestrial ecosystems Aquatic ecosystems Ecotoxicological Models Diversity Models Summary See also Further Reading Endangered Species Introduction Predicting Future Extinction and Factors That Make Species Endangered Endangered Species in the United States Patterns of Endangerment at the Global Level Ecology of Endangerment See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Endemism Introduction What Is Endemism? Classification of Endemism Areas of Endemism Biogeographical Classification of the World Evolution Conservation See also Further Reading Endocrine Disruptors Introduction Which Chemical Compounds Are Endocrine Disruptors? Ecological Effects of Endocrine Disruptors See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Endocrine Disruptors: Effect in Wildlife and Laboratory Animals Introduction Wildlife Studies Fish, Vitellogenesis, and Sewage Alligators and Pesticides Fish and Pulp Mill Effluent Fish, Feedlots, and Pharmaceuticals Studies with Laboratory Animals: Effects of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in Plastic Bisphenol A: The Estrogenic Chemical Used to Make Polycarbonate Plastic Phthalates: Inhibitors of Testosterone Synthesis Used as Additives in Polyvinylchloride Plastic Summary See also Further Reading Endocrine Disruptor Chemicals: Overview Introduction Definitions Examples of Endocrine Disruption Theoretical Concepts The lsquoLow-Dose’ Issue and Inverted-U Dose-Response Relationships for EDCs Summary See also Further Reading Endotherm What Is an Endotherm? Which Organisms Are Endotherms? Source of Heat Endothermy, Metabolic Rate, and Body Size Endothermic Response to Temperature Benefits and Costs of Endothermy Energetic Influence of Endotherms on Ecosystems Evolution of Endothermy Acknowledgment See also Further Reading Energy Balance Introduction Global Energy Balance Planetary Energy Balance Surface Energy Balance Global Energy Balance Components Global Entropy Budget Irreversibility of Processes Planetary Entropy Budget Entropy Production by Earth System Processes Radiative Exchange Electromagnetic Radiation Solar Radiation Reflection of Radiation Absorption of Radiation Zonal Distribution of Radiative Fluxes Dynamics Atmospheric Motion Oceanic Motion Hypothesis of Maximum Entropy Production Global Energy Balance and Climate Geographic and Temporal Variations Feedbacks Ecosystems and the Global Energy Balance Direct Biotic Effects Indirect Biotic Effects and Feedbacks Gaia Hypothesis See also Further Reading Energy Flows in the Biosphere Introduction Incoming and Outgoing Radiations and the Planetary Energy Balance Transformation of Solar Energy Inside the EAS Greenhouse Effect Albedo Equations of Radiative Balance Energetics of Photosynthesis and Vegetation Photosynthesis Efficiency of Vegetation Energy Transfers, Trophic Chains, and Trophic Networks Conclusion See also Further Reading Entropy Entropy in Classical Science The Concept of Entropy and the Principle of Increasing Entropy Entropy and Life Entropy and Biology: Photosynthesis The Accounting of Entropy Production in Humans and Ecosystems: Entropy as an Indicator The Entropy Paradox See also Further Reading Entropy and Entropy Flows in the Biosphere Introduction Entropy Flows in the EAS Entropy Storage of the Biota Change of Entropy in the Terrestrial Biota Exchange between Space and Biota Exchange between Pedosphere and Biota Exchange between Hydrosphere and Biota Exchange between Atmosphere and Biota Biota Performs the Work Humans and Biota Entropy Balance in Elementary Ecosystems Agricultural (Agro-) Ecosystems Myth of Sustainable Development Conclusion See also Further Reading Environmental and Biospheric Impacts of Nuclear War Introduction Studies on Indirect Effects of Nuclear War Rethinking the Unthinkable Behind and Beyond the Scenarios lsquoNuclear Winter’ Modeling - A Sketch Regional Conflicts and Their Global Effects Final Remarks See also Further Reading Environmental Impact Assessment and Application - Part 1 Introduction Definition of Impact Definition of EIA Stages in EIA Process Screening Scoping Reviewing EIS Completion of Appraisal Overview of EIA Techniques Conclusion See also Further Reading Environmental Impact Assessment and Application - Part 2 Introduction Structure and Scope of Matters Addressed in an EIS EIS Scope for Two Categories of Engineering Projects Construction and Operation of a Hydropower Dam Construction and Operation of a Bridge Impact on physical environment Air quality and climate Terrain and soils Water quality and quantity Noise Impact on the biological environment Vegetation and plant communities Wildlife and wildlife habitat Aquatic resources and habitat The socioeconomic impact Mitigation measures Conclusion See also Further Reading Environmental Impact of Sludge Treatment and Recycling in Reed Bed Systems Sludge Reed Bed Systems The Effect on the Environment Effective Reduction of Sludge Residue No Chemicals Needed Energy Savings No Odor Problems Better CO2 Balance Improved Sludge Quality Good Options for Recycling Reduction of Transport and Spreading Costs Greater Treatment Capacity in Wastewater Treatment Plant Sludge Residue See also Further Reading Environmental Protection and Ecology What Is Environmental Protection Domestic Policy Instruments Regulatory Instruments Economic Instruments (Market-Based Measures) Voluntary Approaches Information and Education Instruments International Dimensions of Environmental Protection International Environmental Law International Environmental Bureaucracy International Environmental Financial Mechanisms Conclusion See also Further Reading Environmental Security Introducing Environmental Security Defining Environmental Security A Socioecological Perspective of Some Recent Threats to Environmental Security Resilience Environmental Security and Sustainability Environmental Security and the DPSIR Model See also Further Reading Environmental Space Introduction Defining the Concept Quantification of the lsquoEnvironmental Space’ World Population Natural Resources Renewable resources Water Land and soil Biological resources Nonrenewable resources Fossil fuels Minerals Sustainable Development - Fair Share of Environmental Space See also Further Reading Environmental Stress and Evolutionary Change Introduction Stress and the Expression of Phenotypic Variation Stress and Limits to Selection in Single Traits Stress and Selection on Multiple Traits Detecting Evolutionary Changes to Stressors Evolutionary Responses Detected through Traits Evolutionary Responses Detected through Allele Changes Concluding Remarks See also Further Reading Environmental Tolerance Introduction Environmental Limitations, Physiological Response to Stress and Tolerance Symmetric and Asymmetric Responses to Environmental Drivers Physiological versus Ecological Optimum Ranges Plasticity and Tolerance Multiple Environmental Limitations and the Law of the Minimum Modification of Tolerance by Multiple Environmental Limitations and Polytolerance See also Further Reading Enzymatic Processes Introduction Enzymes Enzymatic Processes in Ecology Enzymatic Kinetics See also Further Reading Epidemiological Studies of Reproductive Effects in Humans Introduction Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals with Antiandrogenic Activity Epidemiological Studies of Phthalates Antiandrogenic Effects of Pesticides Issues Concerning Assessing Risks Posed by EDCs to Human Health A Study of Semen Quality in Relation to Pesticide Exposure Summary See also Further Reading Epifauna and Epiflora Introduction and Definitions Epiflora Epifauna Types of Hosts Host Attributes Host-Specificity Environmental Gradients Acquisition of Resources Solid Substratum Light Water Nutrients/Food Refuge from Consumers Contribution to Ecosystem Diversity, Biomass, and Productivity Epiflora Epifauna Interactions Trophic Cascades: The Importance of Predators See also Further Reading Equilibrium Concept in Phytoplankton Communities Background Numerical and Biomass Equilibrium in Phytoplankton Guilds (Patterns and Limiting Factors) Large-Scale Patterns of Phytoplankton Numerical and Biomass Variation Light Limitation of Phytoplankton Biomass Nutrient Limitation of Phytoplankton Biomass Taxonomic Composition and Richness Equilibria in Phytoplankton Communities Equilibrium Theories The Plankton Paradox, or lsquoSupersaturated’ Communities Nonequilibrium Theories Fluctuations determined by internal feedback factors Fluctuations determined by external factors Summary See also Further Reading Relevant Website Erosion Outline of Erosion An Innovative Control of Shoreline Erosion Outline of the Park and Erosion Problem Areas Project Description Summary and Conclusion Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Estuaries Introduction Definitions of Estuarine Ecosystems Geomorphological Types of Estuaries Bar-Built and Lagoonal Riverine Estuaries Estuarine Ecosystems and Maturity Estuaries as Complex Systems Major Estuarine Subsystems or Habitats Water Column Marshes and Mangroves Seagrasses Invertebrate Reefs and Beds Mud and Sand Flats Material Fluxes Water Fluxes and Residence Times Organismic Transport Global Climate Estuarine Ecosystem Resilience and Restoration See also Further Reading Estuarine Ecohydrology The Failure of Present Estuarine Management from Ignoring Ecohydrology An Estuarine Ecohydrology Model Estuarine Ecohydrology Applications Coral Reef Ecohydrology Model Coral Reef Ecohydrology Applications Conclusions See also Further Reading Estuary Restoration Introduction Estuarine Ecohydrology Saltmarshes Mangroves Seagrass Coral Reefs Sediment Capping Conclusions See also Further Reading Eukaryotes, Origin of Introduction Eukaryotes as Chimera Origin of Eukaryotes Endosymbionts Evidence Problems Secondary Endocytosis of Plastids Other Possible Symbiotic Events See also Further Reading Evapotranspiration Introduction The Hydrologic Cycle and ET ET Terminology Potential ET (ETp) Reference Evapotranspiration (ETref) Grass Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo) Alfalfa Reference Evapotranspiration (ETr) Determination of Crop ET (Plant Water Use) in Agroecosystems Using Climate Variables Crop Coefficient Concept Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Evolution of Defense Strategies Introduction Counterdefense Strategies Behavioral Adaptations Excretion Suppression of Defense Reactions Molecular Adaptation Conclusions See also Further Reading Evolution of Oceans Early Stage of Water Formation on Earth Seawater Formation and Origin of Life Factors Governing Water Regime Changes General Organic Features in the Phanerozoic Sea Level in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Oceanic Water Regime in the Pleistocene Sea-Level Fluctuations in the Holocene Conclusion See also Further Reading Evolution of ‘Prey-Predator’ Systems lsquoPrey-Predator’ System Strategy and Tactics of Prey-Predator Systems Evolution of Prey-Predator Systems Coevolution in Prey-Predator Systems Prey-Predator Systems as Food Web Components See also Further Reading Evolutionary Algorithms Introduction Simple Evolutionary Algorithms Evolution strategies Genetic algorithms Later methods Evolutionary Algorithms in Ecological Modeling Model Parameter Estimation Typical applications Multiobjective Modeling Typical applications Feature Selection Typical applications Evolutionary Algorithms to Augment Other Modeling Methods Typical applications Evolutionary Algorithms Which Generate Models Directly Typical applications Coevolutionary Algorithms and Evolutionary Simulation Typical applications Evolutionary Algorithm Variants Representation Problem-specific representation Flexible representation Operators Variation operators Mutation operators Recombination operators Selection operators Diversity Mechanisms Evolutionary Algorithms and Local Search Related Algorithms Competent evolutionary algorithms Estimation of distribution algorithms Swarm algorithms Ant colony algorithms Particle swarm algorithms Artificial immune systems Summary See also Further Reading Evolutionary and Biochemical Aspects Introduction Diversity of Organismal Stoichiometry Elemental Composition and Biological Function Elemental Composition of Biomolecules Lipids Carbohydrates Protein Nucleotides Biominerals Elemental Composition at Higher Levels of Organization Stoichiometry and Phenotypic Evolution A Functional Perspective: The GRH An Economic Perspective: Stoichiometrically Explicit Tradeoffs See also Further Reading Evolutionary Ecology: Overview See also Further Reading Excretion Introduction Catabolites and Excretion Basic Principles of Excretion Ultrafiltration Active Transport Outline of the Main Excretory Systems Kidneys Malpighian Tubules Nephridia Extrarenal Osmoregulation Excretion through the Gastrointestinal Tract See also Further Reading Exergy Definition: Exergy Definition: Eco-Exergy Exergy and Information Exergy and the Dissipative Structure How to Calculate Eco-Exergy of Organic Matter and Organisms? Why Do Living Systems Have Such a High Level of Eco-Exergy? Losses and Gains of Eco-Exergy by Human Activities Included Pollution Formulation of a Thermodynamic Hypothesis for Ecosystems Support to the Maximum Eco-Exergy Hypothesis See also Further Reading Exergy Destruction as an Ecological Indicator Introduction Scope and Function of an Ecological Indicator Definition of an Ecological Indicator Desirable Properties of an Ecological Indicator Proper Use of an Ecological Indicator The Concept of Exergy Exergy Destruction as an Ecological Indicator? Thermal Dissipation Mechanical Dissipation (Lost Work) Chemical lsquoDissipation’ (Lost Work) Exergy of Living Forms The Problem of the Nonenergetic Production Factors Structural Representation of Energy Conversion Systems Exergoeconomics and Extended Exergy Accounting Labor, L, and Capital, K Environmental Impact, O Conclusions See also Further Reading Exploitation Introduction History of Exploitation Worldwide Effects on Populations Effects on Communities and Ecosystems Interactions with Other Ecological Factors Studying the Effects of Exploitation Lessons Learned Summary See also Further Reading Exposure and Exposure Assessment Introduction Estimating Toxicant Exposure Modeling Exposure to Environmental Contaminants Data Layers for Exposure Assessment Contaminant Distribution Exposure Model Classification Exposure to Populations Trophic Transfer and Exposure Estimates Linking Exposure to Uptake See also Further Reading F Fecundity Introduction Sexual and Asexual Reproduction Inclusive Fitness Eusocial Systems Fecundity Patterns Semelparity Iteroparity Age Specificity Allometric Scaling Density Dependence Tradeoffs Environmental Stochasticity Sex-Allocation Theory Mate Choice Fecundity and Fertility in Population Dynamical Models Genetic Considerations See also Further Reading Feldmann Index Introduction Rhodophyceae/Phaeophyceae Ratio (R/P Ratio) Modifications to R/P Ratio and Limits of Its Use Use of R/P Ratio in Applied Ecology Conclusions Summary See also Further Reading Fermentation Metabolic Biodiversity The Fermentation Process Ecological Distribution of Fermentation Processes Industrial Fermentation Alcoholic Fermentation Glycero-Pyruvic Fermentation Propionic Acid Fermentation Amino Acid Fermentation Lactic Acid Fermentation Homolactic Fermentation Heterolactic Fermentation Bifidobacterium Lactic Acid Fermentation Mixed-Acid Fermentation Butanediol Fermentation Butyric Acid Fermentation Other Fermentation Pathways Ecological Niches and Interactions among Fermenting Microorganisms See also Further Reading Fire Introduction Fire Regimes Fuel Consumption Patterns Fire Intensity and Severity Fire Frequency Fire Patch Size Fire Seasonality Fire Impacts and Recovery Surface Fire Regimes Crown Fire Regimes Fire, Weather, and Climate Interactions Fire Weather Fire Climate Human Disruptions of Natural Fire Regimes Fire Suppression Other Land-Use Impacts on Fire Regimes See also Further Reading Fish Growth Introduction Processes of Fish Growth Metabolism and Scaling Fish Are Often Indeterminate Growers Basic Growth Models The von Bertalanffy Growth Model Critique of the von Bertalanffy model Roff’s Model Critique of the Roff model Merging the von Bertalanffy and Roff Models More Detailed Growth Models Further Complexity Physiological Tradeoffs Behavioral Tradeoffs Density Dependence Compensatory Growth Environmental Variability The Role of Sex and Sexual Selection Life-History Evolution Summary See also Further Reading Fisheries Management Introduction Data Trend Information Mortality Information Compositional Information Population Models Production Models Age- or Stage-Based Models Stock-Recruitment Models Multispecies or Multistock Models Observation Models Statistical Criterion and Parameter Estimation Management Advice See also Further Reading Fishery Models Introduction Basic Forces Time Equilibrium, Sustainability, and Maximization Biological Reference Points for Management Article Structure Growth of Individuals Growth - Other Considerations Bioenergetic Models Recruitment Linear Recruitment Model Spawning Success and Density Dependence Beverton-Holt Recruitment Model Ricker Recruitment Model Recruitment - Other Considerations Mortality Total Mortality Rate Catch-curve analysis Natural Mortality Rate Natural mortality at age Fishing Mortality Rate, Fishing Effort Rate, and Catch Landings, discards, and removals Selectivity Models of Population Dynamics Per-Recruit Analyses Indices of Abundance Surplus-Production Models Schaefer model Pella-Tomlinson model Use of production models Delay-Difference Models Fully Age-Structured Methods Virtual population analysis and cohort analysis Extensions to catch-age analysis Statistical catch-age models Population Models - Other Considerations Uncertainty Length-based models Spatial models Multispecies models See also Further Reading Fishes as Indicators of Estuarine Health and Estuarine Importance See also Further Reading Fitness Darwin The Founders of the Modern Synthesis Population Genetics Evolutionary Ecology Individuals and Types Environments Population Structure Infinite Dilution Underlying Mathematical Structure Notational Conventions Definition Phases of the Invasion Process Without Population Structure Nonfluctuating Environments Periodic Environments General Fluctuating Environments Beyond Matrix Models Residents Have Fitness Zero Generalized Lotka-Volterra Communities Predicting Individual Characteristics When will Long-Term Evolution Maximize Some Fitness-Related Measure? What do Optimization Principles Tell? When Will Evolution Just Maximize the Malthusian Parameter, Average Offspring Number? Individual-Level Conditions From Lifetime Offspring Number to Intrinsic Rate of Increase and Invasion Probability More Than One Birth State Applications A Still Simpler Proxy Metaindividuals More General Compounds Inclusive Fitness Setting the Stage Monomorphic Residents Polymorphic Residents, Allelic Evolution Polymorphic Residents, Modifier-Driven Evolution Evolutionarily Steady Polymorphisms Why Initial Growth Rates? Similar Phenotypes and Fisher’s Fundamental Theorem Not the Last Word Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Fitness Landscapes Average Fitness of the Population Fitness of Gene Combinations Rugged Fitness Landscapes Single-Peak Fitness Landscape Flat Landscapes See also Further Reading Floodplains See also Further Reading Food Chains and Food Webs See also Further Reading Food Specialization See also Further Reading Food-Web Bioaccumulation Models Chemical Equilibrium Mass Balance Biomagnification Integration Trophic Interactions Energy Balance Model Parametrization Sensitivity analysis Calibration and hypothesis testing Uncertainty analysis See also Further Reading Forest Management Reproduction and Establishment Productivity Development Silvicultural Principles Silvicultural Guidelines Silvicultural Systems Harvest Systems Regeneration See also Further Reading Forest Models Whole-Stand Models Individual-Tree Models Space-dependent models Space-independent models See also Further Reading Forest Plantations See also Further Reading Forestry Management Japanese Theoretical Approaches to Forest Population Modeling Models Coupling Mass and Numbers Equations for Forest Dynamics Individual-Based Forest Models See also Further Reading Freshwater Lakes Eutrophication Acidification Toxic Contamination Water-Level Changes Salinization Siltation Introduction of Exotic Species Overfishing Pathogenic Contamination See also Further Reading Freshwater Marshes Nutrients Disturbance See also Further Reading Fundamental Laws in Ecology See also Further Reading Fungal Defense Strategies Phenolics and Other Aromatic Compounds Terpenoids Alkaloids Cyanogenic Compounds Amino Acids and Peptides See also Further Reading Fungi and Their Role in the Biosphere Bioweathering by Fungi Formation of Secondary Mycogenic Minerals Carbonates Oxalates Reductive and oxidative precipitation Other mycogenic minerals Metal Mobilization Metal Immobilization Lichens Mycorrhizas Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Fuzzy Models Combination of Fuzzy Sets Fuzzy Sets for Continuous Inputs Output of Fuzzy Rules Fuzzy Algorithm Defuzzification Influence of Fuzzification Method to System Behavior Adaptation of Membership Functions Adaptation of Outputs Adaptation of the Rules Example: Habitat Model of Lesser Spotted Eagle Habitat structure Fuzzy model nutrition Fuzzy model habitat Simulation of Habitat Quality of the Lesser Spotted Eagle FUZZY Models as Part of Dynamic Models Dynamic-System Modeling Part See also Further Reading G Gaia Hypothesis Introduction Gaia - Original Versions Possible Evidence of Gaian Mechanisms Biogeochemistry and Gaia Bioweathering and Gaia A Controversial Idea from the Beginning Early Criticisms Kirchner’s Formulations Further General Criticisms Specific Criticisms Daisyworld Where Is Gaian Science Headed? See also Further Reading Gause’s Competitive Exclusion Principle Introduction Conceptual Beginnings lsquoThe Struggle of Existence’ Gause’s Contributions Species Coexistence See also Further Reading Generation Time See also Further Reading Global Change Impacts on the Biosphere Introduction Observed Impacts on Ecosystems Marine Ecosystems Land Ecosystems Lakes and Rivers Vulnerability of Ecosystems to Future Change Deserts and Dryland Ecosystems Grasslands and Rangelands Mediterranean Ecosystems Tropical Forests Temperate and Boreal Forests Tundra Ecosystems Freshwater Ecosystems Marine Ecosystems Coastal Ecosystems Summary of Future Risks for the Biosphere See also Further Reading Global Warming Potential and the Net Carbon Balance Global Warming Potential Introduction Radiative Forcing Global Warming Potential Criticism Net Carbon Balance Global Carbon Cycle The Net Carbon Balance and Anthropogenic Emissions Greenhouse Gas Inventory See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Goal Functions and Orientors Introduction System Concepts System Organization Evolution of Systems, and Emergence of Orientors and Goal Functions System Orientation in a Complex Environment Properties of Environments Basic Orientors Properties of Orientors Orientors as Implicit Attractors Orientor Guidance in System Development, Control, Adaptation, and Evolution Simulation of the Evolution of System Orientation Animats and Genetic Algorithms for Orientation Emergence of Basic Value Orientations, Anticipation, and Individual Differences See also Further Reading Grassland Models Introduction Grasslands Overview Over Models of Grasslands Modeling Questions and Models Grassland Dynamics and Processes of Coexistence Succession in grasslands Rangeland models Spatially explicit models on succession and disturbance in grasslands Optimal life-history strategies, competition, coexistence, and biodiversity Spatial structures in arid and semiarid grasslands Models on the Impact of Grazing on Grasslands Modeling Primary Production in Grasslands Regression models Use of remote sensing data Ecosystem Modeling and Flows of Energy and Matter in Grasslands Plant growth and production Biochemistry models Water-balance models See also Further Reading Grazing Grazing in Terrestrial Environments: Why Is the World Green? The Paradox of the Plankton Modeling Grazing Processes Grazing and Indirect Interactions among Species Switching and Facilitation by Grazers: Mechanisms Sustaining Biodiversity Defenses against Herbivores Grazing Promoting the Growth of Plants: Examples of Gardening Grazers and Indirect Effects See also Further Reading Grazing Models Introduction Grazing Systems Grazing Models Concepts and Models Equilibrium Concepts The range succession model Maximizing animal gain (Jones Sandland model) Multiple Stable States The Noy-Meir model Model formulation Biological interpretation Modifications of the Noy-Meir model Bite scale Soil degradation Herbivore dynamics Spatially explicit herbivore dynamics on larger scales Spatial pattern formation Environmental variability Equilibrium versus Nonequilibrium Concepts General ecological theory The equilibrium versus nonequilibrium debate in rangeland ecology Models Not Relying on the Equilibrium Concept Grid-, rule-, and individual-based simulation models The Karoo model Process-based models Landscape-scale models Upscaling individual-based models Landscape scale models using remote sensing Models including ecological and economic factors See also Further Reading Greenhouses, Microcosms, and Mesocosms Introduction Physical/Chemical Control Parameters The Enclosure Physical/Chemical Environment Light Water Supply/Water Environment Water and Air Movement Biotic Parameters Ecosystem Structuring Elements Ecosystem Subunits Ecosystem Interchange The Operational Imperative Case Study: Coral Reef Microcosm Case Study: Florida Everglades Mesocosm Case Study: Biosphere 2 See also Further Reading Growth Constraints: Michaelis-Menten Equation and Liebig’s Law What Stops Growth? Liebig’s Law Growth and the Limiting Factor(s) Threshold and Nonthreshold Agents See also Further Reading Growth Models Introduction Discrete Generations Beverton-Holt Model May Model Ricker Model Continuous Generations Birth-Death Model Exponential Growth Model Logistic Growth Models Time-Lag Models Matrix Models Stochastic Models Summary See also Further Reading H Habitat Introduction The Importance of lsquoEmpty’ Suitable Habitat Habitat Quality Habitat Selection Habitat Selection versus Habitat Use See also Further Reading Habitat Selection and Habitat Suitability Preferences Why Select or Prefer a Given Habitat? Definition of Habitat and Habitat Patch Definition of Habitat or Patch Suitability and Quality Spatiotemporal Variability of Habitat Suitability and Quality Leads to Habitat Selection Sources of Variation in Habitat Suitability and Quality Scales of Variation in Habitat Suitability and Quality Definition of Selection/Choice/Preference Which Habitats and Which Constraints for Different Choices? Foraging Habitat Selection Breeding Habitat Selection Other Habitat Selection Behaviors Differences between Choices: Spatiotemporal Scales Involved, Tradeoffs How Select a Habitat? The Use of Information What Defines Information, Its Value, Quality, and Reliability? Different Types of Information for Habitat Selection Nonsocial cues Social cues Sampling the Environment and Gathering Information: Prospecting Constraints on Habitat Selection Testing the Existence of Habitat Selection Processes Individual and Population Implications of Habitat Selection Spatial Distribution of Individuals and Evolutionary Consequences Effect of habitat choice on population regulation Habitat choice and local population viability Evolution of sociality and coloniality Conservation Biology Small and fragmented populations Environments under human influence Reintroduced populations See also Further Reading Halogenated Hydrocarbons Introduction Halogenated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons Halogenated Aromatic Hydrocarbons HHCs Used in Agriculture HHCs in Polymers and By-Products Naturally Produced HHCs Environmental Fate of HHCs Biotransformation and Biodegradation of HHCs Toxicity and Mechanisms of Toxicity of HHCs Ecotoxicology of HHCs Bioconcentration Effects on Aquatic Wildlife Fish, amphibians, and reptiles Water birds Sea mammals Land mammals Humans See also Further Reading Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium General Testing and Measuring HWE in Gene-Disease Association Studies See also Further Reading Herbivore-Predator Cycles* Introduction How Common are Cycles in Animal Populations? Cycles in Relation to Lotka-Volterra Models Factors Involved in the Regulation of Populations Latitudinal Gradients Density-Dependent Mechanisms First- and Second-Order Dynamics Methods of Determining Patterns and Mechanisms Case Studies Snowshoe Hare Larch Budmoth Fennoscandian Voles General Conclusions See also Further Reading Hierarchy Theory in Ecology Need for Hierarchy Theory Hierarchy and Hypothesis Hierarchical Levels History of the Field Scale and Type See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Hill’s Postulates Introduction Evolution of Causation Theory and Criteria Applications of Causation Criteria to Ecological Science Summary and Conclusions See also Further Reading History of Ecology Introduction Natural History Antiquity and Middle Ages Scientific Revolution in the 1500s and the 1600s The 1700s Specialized Sciences The 1800s The 1900s Specializations Societies and journals Institutions Environmentalism IBP Conclusion See also Further Reading Homeostasis Introduction Maintenance of Homeostasis in Ecological Systems Homeostatic Mechanisms Stabilizing effects of limiting resources Compensatory dynamics Limits to Homeostasis Homeostasis in Contemporary Ecological Research See also Further Reading Homeotherms Introduction Temperature Fourier Equation for Heat Balance Sources of Heat Thermal Set-Point, Load Error, and Temporal Variation Why Elevate and Regulate Tb above Ambient Temperature? Warm Is Not Always Better Body Size Homeothermy and Thermal Niche Expansion Summary See also Further Reading Hopfield Network Motivation Algorithm A Simple Example Network Issues, Variants, and Limitations Applications See also Further Reading Human Ecology: Overview Introduction Brief Early History of Human Ecology Toward a New Ecology Ideas Contributing to a New Human Ecology Nested Networks Practical Applications of Applied Human Ecology Summary See also Further Reading Human Population Growth Introduction World Population Growth Malnourishment in the World World Cropland Resources Per Capita Cropland Loss of Cropland Water Resources Sources of Water Surface water Groundwater Water for Food Production Water Pollution Energy Resources Fossil Energy Future Fossil Energy Supplies Renewable Energy Sources Population Growth and Natural Resources Biodiversity Climate Conclusion See also Further Reading Relevant Website Hunting Introduction Ecological Effects of Hunting Ecological Effects on Hunting See also Further Reading Hydrodynamic Models Introduction History of Ocean Modeling Numerical Modeling Approaches Hydrodynamic Approximations Horizontal Grids Vertical Grids Turbulence Parametrizations Resolution versus Computational Demand Forcing and Boundary Conditions Model Applications Summary See also Further Reading Relevant Website Hydrosphere Introduction Physical Properties of Water Hydrosphere in the Earth System Water and Climate Water Resources of the World Surface Waters Uncertainty Anthropopressure See also Further Reading Hysteresis Introduction The Ecosystem Approach An Example The Community Approach An Example Integrating the Approaches Conclusions See also Further Reading I Impoundments Introduction Differences between Impoundments and Natural Lakes Deep Impoundments Gradients and directionality Depth of outflow Stratification Retention of matter Deep tropical impoundments Shallow Impoundments Aging Role of Impoundments in Fluvial Catchments Influence of the Catchment on the Impoundment Influence of the Impoundment on the River Water Quality in Impoundments Temperate Impoundments Tropical Impoundments Approaches to Impoundment Management Monitoring and Water-Quality Evaluation Variables Associated with Water Quality Assessment Water-Quality Indices Mathematical Models as Tools for Impoundment Management Conclusions See also Further Reading Imprinting Introduction Filial Imprinting Sexual Imprinting Is Sexual Imprinting Adaptive? Evolutionary Consequences of Sexual Imprinting Other Types of Imprinting See also Further Reading Indirect Effects in Ecology Introduction Basics Most Commonly Studied Indirect Effects Interspecific competition Apparent competition Trophic cascades Indirect mutualism and commensalism Interaction modification Classifications of Indirect Effects Indirect Effects Examples of Occurrence and Importance of Indirect Effects Indirect Effects in Terrestrial Environment Indirect Effects in Aquatic Systems Role of Abiotic Components Indirect Effects of Global Relevance Indirect Effects and Industrial Ecology Evolutionary Role of Indirect Effects Approaches and Techniques Used to Detect and Measure Indirect Effects Problems and Implications for Environmental Management Complexity and Uncertainty Separation in Time Separation in Space Defining System Boundaries Implications for Environmental Management Current and Further Directions See also Further Reading Individual-Based Models Introduction Elements of Individual-Based Models Entities, State Variables, and Scales Processes Scheduling Initialization and Input Observer Tools Design Concepts Optimizing Model Complexity and Dealing with Uncertainty Patterns for Model Structure Patterns for Testing Alternative Theories Patterns for Reducing Parameter Uncertainty Analyzing Individual-Based Models Currencies Simulation Experiments Robustness Analysis Implementing Individual-Based Models Examples Coyote Model Shorebird Models Gap Models of Forests The Future of Individual-Based Modeling See also Further Reading Industrial Ecology Industrial Ecology: Human Activities and Global Ecosystems Resources and Products in Industrial Systems Bottom-Up: Resources and Products Top-Down: Entire Industrial Systems Consumption and Sustainable Development See also Further Reading Information and Information Flows in the Biosphere Summary See also Further Reading Insect Pest Models and Insecticide Application Introduction Ecological Pest Control Pest Control and Insecticides Insect Model Classification and Evaluation Modeling Pest Population Dynamics Integrated Crop-Pest Models Mathematical Models of Pesticide Effectiveness and Resistance Modeling Insect Adaptation to Crop Rotation and Transgenic Crops Future Research Needs Conclusions See also Further Reading Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis Introduction Hypothesis History and Range Elements of the Hypothesis The Developmental Process Types of Disturbances The Effect of Intermediate Disturbance on Different Communities Gradients and Landscapes Variations and Alternatives See also Further Reading Internet Introduction Digital Resources Internet Concepts World Wide Web Concepts Information Retrieval on the Web Web Databases and Collections Metadata Standards Web Services Semantic Web Online Computational Ecology Social and Collaborative Computing Sociology of Internet Data Sharing Internet Ecology See also Relevant Websites Intertidal Zonation Scope Patterns of Zonation on Temperate Rocky Shores Hypothetical Mechanisms of Intertidal Zonation The Critical Tidal Factors Hypothesis The Two-Factor Hypothesis Synthetic Hypotheses - Multifactor Dynamic Models A competition-based model of algal zonation A predation-based model of mussel zonation Contributions of Zonation Research to General Ecological Theory The Keystone Predator Hypothesis The Refugia Hypothesis The Amelioration Hypothesis See also Further Reading Invasive Plants Introduction Terms and Definitions Geographical Patterns Rates of Spread, Lag Phase, and Importance of Scale Species Invasiveness The Tens Rule Residence Time Taxonomic Affiliation Phenotypic Plasticity and Evolution Long-Distance Dispersal A Theory of Seed Plant Invasiveness Community Invasibility Invasibility, Level of Invasion, and Propagule Pressure Habitat Compatibility Biotic Resistance Hypothesis Invasional Meltdown Theory of Fluctuating Resources Impact, Management, and Control See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Invasive Species Glossary The Invasive Species Problem Global Perspective Types of Invasive Species Alien species from other continents Hybrid species with introgressed genes Transgenic Weeds Invasion Hypotheses Hypotheses Preemption hypothesis Enemy release hypothesis Resource hypothesis, resource-enrichment hypothesis, fluctuating-resources hypothesis Diversity-resistance hypothesis Geographical range hypothesis Removing Isolation Mechanisms - Intercontinenal Migration Plant, animal, and disease transmission Transmission by travelers and commercial shipments Invasive Species in Natural Communities Composition and Functional Change Invasion and Disturbance Invasive Species Control Restoration of Natural Conditions Following Anthropogenic Disturbance Habitat Protection via Banning of Invasive Introductions Biological Control Physical Control Herbicide Summary/Synthesis See also Relevant Website Iron Cycle Introduction Why Is Iron Important to Phytoplankton? Abundance and Sources of Fe in the Ocean Iron Limitation and Iron-Enrichment Experiments The Geritol Fix Speciation and the Bioavailability Conundrum See also Further Reading Irrigation in Agriculture Introduction General Considerations Water Use in Agriculture Irrigation Planning Optimal Design of Irrigation Systems and Methods Surface Irrigation Pressurized Irrigation Optimal Selection of Irrigation Methods Farm Level Water Management Planning and Optimal Use Future Perspectives on Agricultural Water Use Optimization Development of Water Production Functions Water Quality Economic Evaluation of Water Effect of Energy Cost in Irrigation Systems Development of Decision Support Systems Automation of Irrigation Systems Integrated Water Resource Management See also Further Reading Island Biogeography The MacArthur-Wilson Equilibrium Theory Tests of Species Equilibrium Tests of Turnover Effect of Area Effect of Distance Effect of Elevation Effect of Habitat Extinction and Conservation See also Further Reading Isolation Measuring Isolation Effects of Isolation See also Further Reading K k-Dominance Curves Introduction The Method Transformations of k-Dominance Curves Partial Dominance Curves Hypothesis Testing See also Further Reading Kin Selection Kin Selection Optimizes Inclusive Fitness Kin Selection Explains Altruism Testing Kin Selection Theory Maximizing Relatedness Maximizing Benefit Minimizing Cost General Application of Kin Selection See also Further Reading L Lagoons Background Inputs - Catchment Loads Fates and Effects - Physics and Mixing Fates and Effects - Ecological Impacts and Prediction Empirical Knowledge and Models Detailed Simulation Models of Ecosystems, Functional Groups, and Major Species Nonequilibrium Dynamics Emerging Concepts - Multifractal Distributions of Species and Biomass See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Lake Models Introduction Objectives of Lake Modeling Processes to be Represented in Lake Ecosystem Models Difficulties of Lake Ecosystem Modeling Components of Lake Ecosystem Models Physical Submodels Spatial resolution of lake ecosystem models Description of mixing processes Biogeochemical Submodels Consideration of nutrients in lake models Modeling of element cycles and exchange with the sediment Description of the mineralization process Ecological Submodels Trophic-level models Functional group models Dominant-species models Adaptive property models Typical Formulations of Transformation Processes Examples of Ecological Lake Models and Their Application BELAMO Model overview Calibration strategy Model applications SALMO Model overview Calibration strategy Model applications CAEDYM Model overview Calibration strategy Model applications PROTECH Model overview Calibration strategy Model applications Structural Dynamic Model Model Overview Modeling Approach Example Application See also Further Reading Relevant Website Lake Restoration Introduction: Main Water-Quality Problems Eutrophication Acidification Other Harmful Substances Salinization Eutrophication Control Principles Reduction of Phosphorus Concentration Phosphorus load reduction Decreasing of P emissions Increasing P retention capacity Purification of inlet water Increasing phosphorus retention Phosphorus inactivation Aeration and oxygenation Nitrate addition Sediment capping Increasing of P export Hypolimnetic withdrawal External P elimination Sediment dredging Control of Physical and Biological Structure Physical manipulation Destratification Biomanipulation Food web manipulations Macrophyte biomass control Control of Acidification External Measures In Situ Technologies Chemical neutralization Biological neutralization Summary See also Further Reading Lake Restoration Methods Introduction Lake Restoration Methods Selection of Restoration Methods Conclusions See also Further Reading Landfills Introduction Postclosure End Uses Soil Cover Vegetation Fauna Ecological Approach See also Further Reading Landscape Ecology What Is Landscape Ecology? Evolving Perspectives in Landscape Ecology Some Key Topics in Landscape Ecology Concluding Remarks See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Landscape Modeling Introduction Maps as Models Gradient Models Habitat Models Conservation Models Models of the Influence of Pattern on Process Ecosystem Process Models Dispersal Models Models of the Spatial Consequences of Landscape Change Disturbance Models Models of Progressive Land-Use Change Issues of Landscape Modeling History Scale Model Evaluation See also Further Reading Landscape Planning Introduction Landscape Definition Landscape Functions Landscape Diversity and Coherence Landscape Fragmentation and Its Ecological Consequences Landscape Evaluation and Landscape Indicators Main Ecological Engineering Principles of Landscape Planning Levels and Steps in Landscape Planning Territorial Ecological Networks See also Further Reading Land-Use Modeling Introduction Patterns of Human Land Use Modeling Land-Use Change Data Statistical Methods for Modeling Land Use Spatial Interaction Models Travel-Demand Models Cellular Automata Agent-Based Models Integrated Land-Use Modeling Conclusions See also Further Reading Lead Ecotoxicology of Lead Lead in the Aquatic Environment Aquatic geochemistry and toxicity Sediment chemistry and toxicity Lead in aquatic organisms Environmental regulation of Pb in natural waters Lead in the Terrestrial Environment Lead in terrestrial plants and invertebrates Importance of soil and sediment ingestion as a pathway of Pb exposure in wildlife Lead toxicity in mammals Lead toxicity in wild birds Primary Pb shot poisoning Secondary Pb shot poisoning Lead fishing weights See also Further Reading Leaf Area Index Models Introduction Ground LAI Measurement Direct LAI Measurement Indirect LAI Estimation Indirect contact method Indirect optical method Estimation of LAI from Remote Sensing Empirical Relationship Based on Vegetation Indices Canopy Reflectance Model Inversion Canopy reflectance models Model inversion and parameter estimation Hybrid Inversion Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of Global LAI Global LAI from Satellite Remote Sensing Temporal Characteristics of LAI Application of LAI in Ecological Models Leaf Mass Calculation Canopy Physiological Properties Below Canopy Irradiance Daily Photosynthesis See also Further Reading Leaf Area Index Introduction Magnitude of LAI across the World Environmental Controls of LAI Natural Temporal Variation in LAI Management of LAI LAI as a Descriptor of Canopy Structure LAI as the Driving Force of Canopy Exchanges Assessment of LAI Direct or Semidirect Methods Harvesting Litter collection Allometry Indirect Methods Ground-based approaches using optical instruments Remote-sensed approaches Worldwide Maps of LAI and Controversies About Scaling in Global Modeling See also Further Reading Relevant Website Learning Introduction What Learning Is Who Learns Why Learn Benefits of Learning Costs of Learning Learning in an Ecological Context What Animals Learn When Animals Learn How Animals Learn Learning and Evolutionary Change Effects on Adaptive Evolution Effects on Diversification Learning and Species Interactions Learning and Environmental Change of Human Origin See also Further Reading Life Forms, Plants Introduction A Brief History of the Plant Life-Form Concept Algal Life-Forms Life-Forms Based on Developmental Criteria Unicellular Life-Forms Colonial Life-Forms Multicellular Life-Forms Parenchymatous Life-Forms Algal Life-Forms Classified by Habitat Preference Terrestrial Plant Life-Forms Raunkiaer’s System Phanerophytes Chamaephytes Hemicryptophytes Cryptophytes Therophytes Raunkiaer’s Normal Spectrum and Phytoclimatic Types Distractions of Raunkiaer’s System Plant Life-Forms: An Evolutionary Perspective Early Paleozoic Trends Evolutionary Trends in Extant Plants Summary See also Further Reading Life-Cycle Assessment Introduction The History of LCA Conducting an LCA Comparing Apples to Apples Life-Cycle Inventory Example Calculation of a Characterization Factor Life-Cycle Impact Assessment Midpoint versus Endpoint Impact Modeling Comparing Alternatives Using Life-Cycle Interpretation Limitations of Conducting an LCA Summary See also Further Reading Life-History Patterns Introduction Approaches and Paradigms Tradeoffs Phenotypic Models Genetic Models Summary of Phenotypic and Genetic Models Key Questions and Case Studies The Timing of Reproduction: Age and Size at Maturity Current Versus Future Reproduction and the Evolution of Life Span Investment Per Offspring and the Size/Number Tradeoff Sex Ratio and Sex Allocation Departures from Classic Theory Future Directions See also Further Reading Light Extinction Introduction Lambert-Beer Law Light Extinction in the Atmosphere Light Extinction in Aquatic Ecosystems Light Extinction in Terrestrial Ecosystems See also Further Reading Limiting Factors and Liebig’s Principle Introduction Liebig’s Principle Synthetic Nitrogen Fertilizers Worldwide Effects Fresh water See also Further Reading Limits to Growth The Basic Idea Three Simple Models A Global Debate See also Further Reading M Macroevolution Neo-Darwinism and the lsquoNew Synthesis’ Paradigm Punctuated Equilibrium Species Selection Mass Extinction and Other Challenges from the Fossil Record Adaptive Radiations Evolutionary Novelty and Innovation Concluding Remarks See also Further Reading Mangrove Wetlands Introduction Ecogeomorphology of Mangroves Biodiversity Ecosystem Processes Succession Productivity and Litter Dynamics Nutrient Biogeochemistry Mangrove Food Webs Impacts of Environmental Change Management and Restoration See also Further Reading Margalef’s Index See also Further Reading Mariculture Waste Management Introduction Aquaculture Waste Production Attempts to Manage and Reduce Waste Discharges Ecological Engineering Approaches IMTA as an Ecological Engineering Approach Limitations Toward an Ecological Engineering Breakthrough Conclusions See also Further Reading Marine Models Introduction Marine Ecosystem Modeling Approaches Marine Pelagic Ecosystem Models Zooplankton Grazing and Model Closure Modeling Export Modeling Light Response and Penetration Bacteria, DOM Cycling, and Viruses Multiple Limiting Nutrients Biogeochemical Functional Groups and Harmful Algal Bloom Modeling Benthic-Pelagic Coupling and Sediment Transport Models of Higher Trophic Levels and Fish Marine Coupled Model Systems Model Complexity versus Predictive Skill Impact of the Physical Model on Ecosystem Response Summary See also Further Reading Mass Cultivation of Freshwater Microalgae Introduction Biological Principles and Technologies of Mass Cultivation Light Temperature Culture Monitoring and Maintenance Cultivation Systems Laboratory Cultivation Open Outdoor Systems Closed and Semiclosed Outdoor Photobioreactors Heterotrophic Fermentors Biotechnologically Important Strains of Microalgae Arthrospira (Spirulina) Chlorella Dunaliella Haematococcus Microalgae for Aquaculture Processing of Microalgal Biomass Exploitation of Microalgal Products Nutrition Valuable and Bioactive Compounds Ecological Application of Mass Cultures Wastewater Treatment Future Developments and Prospects Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Mass Production of Marine Macroalgae Introduction Macroalgae and Mariculture Porphyra Cultivation Culture of conchocelis Control of conchospore formation and release Seeding culture nets with conchospores Sporeling stage Harvesting and processing Gracilaria Cultivation Cultivation methods Eucheuma and Kappaphycus Cultivation Laminaria Cultivation Undaria Cultivation Integrated Multitrophic Aquaculture Conclusion See also Further Reading Material and Metal Ecology Introduction The Metal Wheel - Material and Metal Ecology Product Design and Fundamental Recycling Optimization Models Product Design, the lsquoMetal Wheel’, and Recycling Technology Recycling Optimization Models Linking Design and Recycling Recycling 1153 ELVs - From Theory to Practice Practical Procedures for Performing Large-Scale Industrial Recycling Experiments Calculation of Recycling/Recovery Rate Statistics Material and Metal Ecology See also Further Reading Mathematical Ecology Introduction Dynamics of One Population Prey-Predator System Food Chain A Cycle of Matter Competition of Two Populations Ecosystems Applications See also Further Reading Mating Systems Introduction Measuring the Sex Difference in Fitness Variance The Mean and Variance in Mate Numbers The Opportunity for Sexual Selection Genetic Correlations between the Sexes See also Further Reading Matrix Models Introduction Matrices Operation on Matrices Eigenvalues Population Models Age-Classified Population Inherent growth rate of population Stable age distribution Equilibrium age distribution Stage-Classified Population Community Models Community Matrix Stable community Qualitative community matrix Succession Models Static Models Balance Models Residence Times Future residence time Past residence time Input-Output Models Output environ Outputs of an input Input environ Inputs of an output Concluding Remarks See also Further Reading Matter and Matter Flows in the Biosphere Introduction Global Geochemical Cycling Calcium Cycling Water Cycling Biological Cycling Biosphere Biogeocoenose Food Webs Elements’ Pathways: Terrestrial Ecosystems Elements’ Pathways: Marine Ecosystems Abyssal Rift Ecosystems Mathematical Models of Biological Cycling Global Biogeochemical Cycling Structure General Characteristics Energy Aspects Cycles of the Main Biogenic Elements Chemical Elements’ Presentation in Cycling Evolution of Biogeochemical Cycling Structural Peculiarities of Biogeochemical Cycles’ Development Forming of Biogeochemical Cycling Dynamics of Oxygen and Carbonic Gas Concentration in the Atmosphere Mankind as a Biogeochemical Factor General Tendencies of Biogeochemical Cycles’ Developments Successions Summary See also Further Reading Maximum Sustainable Yield Definition of MSY Calculation of MSY The Use of MSY in Fisheries Management Ecosystem Considerations Conclusion See also Further Reading Mediterranean Introduction Main Environmental Characteristics of the Mediterranean Ecoregions Climate Soils and Nutrients Availability Patterns and Determinants of Mediterranean Biodiversity Historical Biogeography and Evolution of Mediterranean Biodiversity Pre-Pleistocene History: The Diversification and Mixing of Different Lineages Influence of Pleistocene Glacial Refugia to Current Patterns of Mediterranean Biodiversity Convergence versus Nonconvergence of Mediterranean Ecosystems Ecosystem Characteristics and Processes Main Ecosystem Types Strategies of Resistance to Climatic Stress Links between Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function Disturbances and Ecosystem Dynamics Ecosystem Responses to Fire Influence of Herbivory and Grazing Conclusion: Current Evolution of Mediterranean Ecosystems under Global Changes See also Further Reading Mesocosm Management Introduction Design and Operation of Mesocosm Ecology Design and Operation of Mesocosm Engineering The Practice of Ecological Engineering See also Further Reading Metacommunities Introduction Mechanisms of Metacommunity Dynamics Metacommunity Topics Extending Beyond Species Diversity Food Webs Ecosystem Functioning Evolution Summary See also Further Reading Metapopulation Models Introduction Classification of Metapopulation Models Stochastic versus Deterministic Models Discrete-Time versus Continuous-Time Models Number of Populations and Description of Landscape Structure Four Kinds of Metapopulation Models Two-Population Models Levins Model Population Size-Structured Models Spatially Realistic Metapopulation Models Models for Dynamic Landscapes Metapopulation Models for Two or More Species Application to Landscape Management and Conservation Habitat Loss and Extinction Threshold Transient Dynamics and Extinction Debt Reserve Selection Summary See also Further Reading Methane in the Atmosphere Increase in Methane Concentration Methane Sources Conclusions See also Further Reading Microbial Communities Introduction Limits to Growth The Principle of Competitive Exclusion Essential and Substitutable Resources Competition for Two Resources Allelopathy: How E. coli Plays Rock-Scissors-Paper Oscillations and Chaos in Microbial Food Webs See also Further Reading Microbial Cycles Introduction Corg-Cycle Microbial Nitrogen Cycle Phosphorus Sulfur Cycle Iron Cycle Biologically Mediated Reactions Trophic Organization of Microbial Communities See also Further Reading Marine and Aquatic Defense Strategies Introduction Mechanical Defense Biofilm Formation Spore Formation Chemical Defense Microbial Antibiotics and Toxins Quorum Quenching Resistance Mechanisms Defense by Microbial Symbionts Conclusions See also Further Reading Microbial Ecological Processes: Aerobic/Anaerobic Introduction Overview of the Significance of Microbial Processes What Are the Biosphere Resources Exploited by Microorganisms? The Ecological Context of Microbial Processes Physiological Principles that Provide a Framework for Predicting Microbially Mediated Ecological Processes Photosynthesis (Light Energy) Chemosynthesis (Oxidation-Reduction Reactions) A Thermodynamic Hierarchy that Systematically Predicts Microbial Physiological Reactions Predicting electron-donor, electron-acceptor regimes in ecological settings Key Biogeochemical and Biochemical Processes at Aerobic and Anaerobic Interfaces The Carbon Cycle Focus on methanogenesis and syntrophy: Insights from biochemistry and microbe-microbe interactions Focus on acetogenesis: A process that competes with methanogenesis in anaerobic habitats The Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen fixation Nitrogen assimilation and ammonification Nitrification Denitrification Anammox The Sulfur Cycle The Iron Cycle Conclusion See also Further Reading Microbial Ecology Introduction The Global Inventory of Microbial Diversity and the Great Plate Count Anomaly A Panoply of Metabolic Functions and Interactions The Importance of Laboratory Cultivation in Microbial Ecology Culture-Independent Methods in Microbial Ecology Environmental Genomics Estimating Species Diversity Linking Microbial Diversity to Ecological Mechanisms and Environmental Drivers The Contribution of Culture-Based Studies of Microorganism to General Ecology See also Further Reading Microbial Models Introduction The Phase Diagram The Neoclassical Model Formulation Transition Points on the Phase Diagram - Neoclassical Model Closed-Form Analytical Solution - Neoclassical Model Results from the Neoclassical Model Baranyi and Roberts Model Formulation The Autonomous Version of the Baranyi and Roberts Model Analysis and Solution of the Autonomous System Evaluation of the Lag Duration Conclusions Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Microclimate Introduction Physical Characteristics Organism-Microclimate Interactions Physiological Impacts Biogeographic Impacts Mathematical Models Summary See also Further Reading Microcosms Introduction What Are Ecological Microcosms? Historical and Current Applications Design Factors Sourcing, Seeding, and Energy Matching Spatial Scaling, Wall, and Isolation Effects Temporal Scaling Replication, Variability, and Divergence Similarity to Natural Ecosystem See also Further Reading Mine Area Remediation Introduction Impacts of Mining Activities Remediation, Reclamation, Rehabilitation, Restoration, or Reconstruction? Learning from Nature Ecological Services, Biodiversity, and Restoration of Mine Areas Creation of New, Alternative Ecosystems Wetlands for Mine Remediation Creation of Habitat and Enhancement of Biodiversity Conclusion See also Further Reading Model Development and Analysis Introduction Case Study: Gwydir Wetlands Step 1: Define the Model Purpose Step 2: Model Context Step 3: Conceptualize System, Data, and Prior Knowledge Step 4: Select Model Features and Families Step 5: Choose How the Model Structure and Parameter Values Are to be Found Step 6: Choose the Performance Criteria and Parameter-Estimation Techniques Step 7: Identify the Model Structure and Parameter Values Step 8: Verification Step 9: Quantify the Uncertainty Step 10: Evaluate and Test the Model Conclusions See also Further Reading Model Types: Overview Introduction: Classification of Ecological Models Modeling Matter, Energy, or Populations Model Pairs Eleven Different Model Types/Tools Model Types/Tools Available Today Characteristics of the Model Types/Tools Dynamic Models - Biogeochemical and Bioenergetics Static Models Population Dynamic Models Structurally Dynamic Models Fuzzy Models Artificial Neural Networks IBMs and Cellular Automata Spatial Models Ecotoxicological Models Stochastic Models Hybrid Models Which Model Types Are Recommended to Solve Which Problems? Which Ecosystems Have Been Modeled? Which Environmental Problems Have Been Modeled? See also Further Reading Modules in Modeling Introduction Modularity Object-Oriented Modeling Examples Flexible Modeling System Modular Modeling System Library of Hydro-Ecological Modules Community Modeling Collaborative Modeling See also Further Reading Monitoring, Observations, and Remote Sensing - Global Dimensions* Global Ecology - Unique Perspectives from Space-Based Satellite Sensors/Instruments Global Monitoring of Land Ecosystems Global Vegetation Global Climate Change Monitoring Ecosystem Habitat and the Climatic Environment Large-Scale Forest Fires, Gaseous/Particulate Emissions, and Ecosystem Impacts Managed Ecosystems and Biofuels - A Subject of Current Interest and Concern Importance of Land-Cover Change in Simulating Future Climates Using Global Models Monitoring Global Oceanic Ecosystems, Coastal Zones, and Seas Global Distribution of Ocean Chlorophyll/Phytoplankton Biomass Hurricanes and Oceanic Phytoplankton Blooms Coastal Ecosystems and Disturbances Example of Satellite Monitoring of the Impact of El Nintildeo on the Productivity (Blooms) of Oceanic Phytoplankton Black Water Off the Gulf Coast of Florida Phytoplankton Blooms in the Black Sea Satellite Monitoring of Coral Reefs Atmosphere-Land-Ocean and Global Biogeochemical Transports Global Carbon Monoxide (Air Pollution) Measurements Using Satellites Monitoring to Identify Ecological Niches Conducive to Disease Outbreaks Future Challenges See also Further Reading Monocultures versus Polycultures Introduction Agricultural Origins Competition and Coexistence Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning See also Further Reading Mortality Introduction Ecology and Evolution Survivorship Curves Individual Behavior Density-Independent versus Density-Dependent Mortality Density-Independent Mortality Density-Dependent Mortality Allee Effect Spatial Differences in Density-Independent versus Density-Dependent Mortality Direct versus Delayed Density-Dependent Mortality and Population Cycles Competing Risks Competing Risk Theory Compensatory Mortality Additive Mortality Partial Compensatory Mortality See also Further Reading Multilayer Perceptron Introduction MLP Algorithm Structure of MLP Backpropagation Algorithm Forward-propagating step Backward-propagating step Training the network Testing the network Overtraining or overfitting the network Variables’ Contribution and Sensitivity Analysis Example of MLP Applications in Ecological Studies Data Set Preprocessing MLP model training Results of example MLP model Multiple linear regression and MLP Contribution of variables in MLP models Conclusion See also Further Reading Multitrophic Integration for Sustainable Marine Aquaculture Introduction Geographical Expansion Intensification of the Existing Sites Diversification Changes in Attitudes Are Needed Innovative Practices Need to be Developed Examples of IMTA Development in Several Countries Canada South Africa Israel Chile China The Development of Innovative Practices, such as IMTA, Will Require Defining the Appropriate Regulatory and Policy Frameworks, and Financial Incentive Tools Conclusions See also Further Reading Mutagenesis Introduction DNA Damage Types of DNA Damage Adducts Oxidative damage Base loss, sugar damage, and strand breakage DNA cross-links Radiation-induced DNA damage Repair of DNA Damage Mutations Types of Mutations Formation of Mutations Spontaneous mutations Chemically induced mutations Modulators of Mutagenesis Effects on Fitness and Ecological Parameters See also Further Reading Mutualism Introduction Mutualism Defined Historical Study of Mutualism Benefits and Costs of Mutualism Functional Responses and Population Dynamics Conditional and Context-Dependent Outcomes Evolutionary Ecology of Mutualism See also Further Reading N Natural Wetlands Wetland Functions and Values Wastewater Treatment Nutrient Transformation Processes Mechanisms for phosphorus removal Substrate Adsorption Physical Settlement and Accretion Plant Assimilation Mechanisms for Nitrogen Removal Plant Assimilation Decomposition Mechanisms for Removal of Sulfur and Other Nutrients Mechanisms for Removal of Heavy Metals Mechanisms for Removal of Pathogens Role of wetland plants Relative importance of various wetlands Limit to wastewater treatment Constructed wetlands See also Further Reading Neutral Theory Introduction Historical Background The Unified Neutral Theory Relative Species Abundance Species-Area Relationships, Speciation, and Phylogeny Recent Developments in Neutral Theory The Future of Neutral Theory See also Further Reading Nitrification Introduction Nitrifying Microorganisms Ammonia-Oxidizing Bacteria Ammonia-Oxidizing Archaea Anammox Organisms Nitrite-Oxidizing Bacteria Heterotrophic Nitrifiers Ecological Roles of Nitrification Agricultural and Terrestrial Systems Wastewater Treatment The Marine Environment The Surface Ocean Ecosystem Oxygen-Depleted Waters and Sediments Environmental Factors that Affect Nitrification Methods for Measurement of Nitrification Rates 15N Tracer Methods Inhibitor-Based Nitrification Assays See also Further Reading Nitrogen Introduction Nitrogen Pollution in a Global Perspective Nitrogen Ecotoxicity in Terrestrial Ecosystems Direct Toxicity Indirect Toxicity Nitrogen Toxicity in Aquatic Ecosystems Direct Toxicity Indirect Toxicity Conclusions See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Nitrogen Cycle Introduction The Nitrogen Cycle Long-Term Global and Regional Trends in the Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen Export by Rivers Land-Use Controls to Reduce N Enrichment to Surface Waters See also Further Reading Noosphere The Noosphere Concept Related Concepts Mechanisms and Institutions Body and Soul See also Further Reading Numerical Methods for Distributed Models Partial Differential Equations in Ecological Modeling Explicit Methods for Reaction-Advection-Diffusion Equations Stability Analysis Implicit Methods for the Heat Equation Implicit and Semi-Implicit Methods for [1] and for Similar Coupled Systems Operator-Splitting Methods Flux and Mixed Boundary Conditions Elementary Spectral Methods Problems with Two Spatial Dimensions Note on Hyperbolic Problems See also Further Reading Numerical Methods for Local Models Elementary Methods for a Single Ordinary Differential Equation Adaptive Methods Multistep Methods Methods for Systems of ODEs Stiff Equations See also Further Reading O Ocean Currents and Their Role in the Biosphere Introduction The Ocean Currents, Climate, and Biosphere The Role of the Ocean Currents in the Climate System Ocean Currents and Climate Change Past and Future Changes in Ocean Circulation Paleoclimate Evidences for Instability of the Ocean Circulation Future Changes in Ocean Circulation Impact of Ocean Circulation Changes on Biosphere Impact of the Atlantic Circulation Change on Terrestrial Ecosystems Ocean Currents and Marine Biota Summary See also Further Reading Optimal Foraging See also Further Reading Optimal Foraging Theory Foundations Basic Models The prey model The patch model Opportunity costs The ideal free distribution Dynamic optimization Where Is Foraging Theory Now? Behavioral Mechanisms Cognition and psychological phenomena Neurobiology and neuroethology Digestive physiology Modern Foraging Theory Herbivory Foraging in the face of predation Social foraging Foraging Ecology Conclusion See also Further Reading Optimal Reproductive Tactics Reproductive Effort Expenditure per Progeny Patterns in Avian Clutch Sizes See also Further Reading Ordination Introduction Principal Components Analysis and Correspondence Analysis How Many Axes to Plot? Arches, Horseshoes, and Detrending Scaling Methods Unconstrained versus Constrained Ordination Summary See also Further Reading Organic Farming Introduction Definitions and Principles Origin and Development of OF Standards and Regulations Labeling, OF Logos, and Inspection Statistics Environmental Aspects and Biodiversity See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Organismal Ecophysiology Introduction Organismal and Molecular Stoichiometry Stoichiometric Homeostasis in Organisms Allocation Patterns Affect Organism Stoichiometry Acquisition of Nutrients Nutrient Acquisition in Plants Nutrient Acquisition in Metazoan Animals Incorporation and Turnover of Elements Stoichiometry of Heterotroph Growth Stoichiometry of Autotroph Growth Nutrient Storage Nutrient Release See also Further Reading Orientation, Navigation, and Searching Orientation in Space Compass Direction and Distance Traveled Position in Space Navigation: Compasses, Landmarks, and Maps Orientation by Olfaction: Trails, Flows, and Plumes Search See also Further Reading Relevant Website Oxygen Cycle Introduction The Oxygen Budget The History of Atmospheric Oxygen The Recent Decline in Atmospheric Oxygen The Role of Ozone The Production and Destruction of Ozone Human Effects on Ozone See also Further Reading Ozone Layer Introduction Ozone and UVB Ozone and the Spectral Quality of Incident Sunlight Atmospheric attenuation of the solar spectrum Ozone depletion Considerations for UV Exposure Origin of the Ozone Layer and Evolution of Life A Note on Ozone Pollution Biological Consequences of UVB Exposure Molecular Damage and Cellular Impacts Biological Defenses UV detection Avoidance by mobility External barriers Natural sunscreens Antioxidants Physiological repair pathways Organismal Responses Ecosystem Effects Biodiversity Trophic Dynamics Primary productivity Consumers Biogeochemical Cycles Future Outlook See also Further Reading Relevant Websites P Paleoecology Introduction Research Approaches Philosophy of Paleoecology Paleoecological Evidence Stages in a Paleoecological Study Paleoecological Reconstructions Ecological Paleoecology Contributions of Paleoecology to Ecology Future Directions and Potentialities See also Further Reading Panarchy Scale and Ecosystems Hierarchy and Panarchy Cross-Scale Interactions Summary See also Further Reading Parameters See also Further Reading Parasites Introduction Parasites Are Everywhere What Is a Parasite? Micropredators The Diversity of Parasite Life Histories Parasitoids Microparasites and Macroparasites Parasitic Castrators Complex Life Cycles Ecological Effects of Parasites Competition Predation Parasitism Mutualism/Facilitation Food Web Topology Ecological Effects on Parasites Host Diversity Environmental Change Further Reading Parasitism Introduction Parasite Diversity Exploitation and Transmission Strategies Competition between Parasites Coevolution between Hosts and Parasites See also Further Reading Participatory Modeling Introduction Modeling Tools Forms of Participation Model Selection and Development Data Collection and Availability Scenario Development Interpreting Results and Developing Policy Alternatives Variations of Participatory Modeling Criteria for Successful Participatory Modeling Summary See also Further Reading Peatlands Introduction Occurrence Environmental Limiting Factors Peatland Types Bogs Fens Poor fens Rich fens Important Processes in Peatlands Acidification Water Retention Nutrient Sequestration (Oligotrophification) Methane Production Sulfate Reduction Initiation and Development of Peatlands Peatlands as Carbon Sinks See also Further Reading Pedosphere Concepts Processes Structure Pedo-Memory Functions Some Limiting Conditions Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Pelagic Predators See also Further Reading Persistent Organic Pollutants Glossary Chemical-Physical Characteristics of Persistent Organic Pollutants Impacts of POPs on Organisms Main Mechanisms of Toxic Action Dioxin-like action chemicals Endocrine disruptors Effects Observed Both in Laboratory and in the Field Birds Fish Effects Observed on Wildlife Bird species Fish Mammals Factors Influencing the Exposure The role of habitat selection The role of food selection The role of lipids POPs and the Food Chain Principal International Agreements on POPs See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Phenols Introduction Chemistry of Phenols Analysis of Phenols Man-Made Phenols and Drinking Water Quality Toxicity of Phenols Production and Use of Phenols by Man Examples of Man-Made Phenols of Special Toxicological Interest Naturally Occurring Phenols Production of Naturally Occurring Phenols Plant Phenolics as Pigments and Flavors Plant Phenolics as Natural Toxicants and Herbivore Deterrents Plant Phenolics as Antioxidants Ecological Considerations Plant Phenolics and Allelopathy Phenolics and Plant Signaling Phenolics in Ecosystem Processes See also Further Reading Relevant Website Phenomenon of Life: General Aspects Introduction General Principles of Life Dynamic Nature of Life Multilayer Character of Life Life, Death, and Immortality Extraterrestrial and Artificial Life Life as a System Nonlinearity of Biological Systems Structure and Hierarchy Cybernetic Principles in Biosystems Nature of Life: Mathematical, Physical, and Chemical Approaches Mathematical View on Life Physical Principles of Life Information Basis of Life General Chemical Principles of Life Life Is a Way of Matter Self-Organization Biological Self-Organization as a Process of Niche Creation and Filling General Evolutionary Rules Basics of Darwinism Inheritance, Variability, and Natural Selection New Tendencies in Darwinism Summary See also Further Reading Phenotypic Plasticity Terms and Concepts Phenotypic Plasticity Reaction Norms Gene-Environment Interaction Developmental Plasticity The Nature-Nurture Question Modularity as an Aspect of Behavioral Plasticity lsquoAssessment’ and Adaptive Behavioral Plasticity Plasticity and the Evolution of Behavior The Origin of Novel Behavioral Traits Behavior and Morphological Evolution Modularity and the Evolution of Behavior Conclusion See also Further Reading Pheromones See also Further Reading Philosophy of Ecology: Overview Introduction Ecology: The Study of Ecological Phenomena Two Conceptions of the Domain of Ecology What Exactly Is the Domain of Ecology? The Restrictive View: Ecology as Natural Biological Science The Expansive View: Ecology as Synthetic Systems Science Issues in the Philosophy of Ecology: Restrictive Mode Issues in the Philosophy of Ecology: Expansive Mode Systems Ecology Human Ecological Sciences Ecology-the-Science and Ecology-the-Worldview See also Further Reading Phosphorus Cycle Introduction The Human-Intensified Phosphorus Cycles Inorganic Cycle Organic Cycles Global Phosphate Consumption Crop Harvests Livestock and Animal Wastes Food Consumption and Human Wastes Phosphates in Soil Phosphorus Losses Phosphate Balance in Cropland Ecological Impacts of Phosphorus Use Mineral Conservation Soil Erosion Animal Wastes Sewage Treatment Detergents Use Eutrophication Regulating the Societal Phosphorus Flows See also Further Reading Photolysis Introduction Basic Processes Effects of Photolysis Photobleaching and Photomineralization of Chromophoric Dissolved Organic Carbon Effects on Nutrient Cycles, Such as Phosphorus, Iron, and Nitrogen Effect on Carbon Cycle Organic carbon Inorganic carbon Effects on Organisms Photolysis as Ecological Elimination Pathway of (Algal) Toxins and Xenobiotics Algal toxins Xenobiotics in water and soil surfaces Conclusion See also Further Reading Phthalates Introduction Emission of Phthalates in the Environment Environmental Fate of Phthalates Physical-Chemical Properties Affecting Environmental Distribution Degradation and Bioaccumulation of Phthalates Atmosphere Water Soil Bioaccumulation of Phthalates Adverse Effects of Phthalates Human Health Effects Aquatic Toxicity Soil Toxicity Risk Assessment Endocrine-Disruptive Effects of Phthalates General Data available from in vitro experiments Data available from in vivo experiments Significance for environmental risk assessment See also Further Reading Physical Transport Processes in Ecology: Advection, Diffusion, and Dispersion Introduction Advection Diffusion Combined Advection-Diffusion Processes Turbulent Diffusion Dispersion See also Further Reading Physiological Ecology Thermal Biology Energetics Geographical Patterns Limits to Geographical Distributions Gas Exchange Photosynthesis Nutrients and Diets The Future See also Further Reading Phytoremediation Phytoremediation and Other Biotechnologies Ecological Engineering Genetics and Biochemistry of Phytoremediation and Ecological Engineering Proteomics in Phytoremediation Research Genetic Engineering Future Directions and Needs State of the Practice See also Further Reading Relevant Website Phytosociology Introduction Phytosociological Data Data Records Selection and Size of Plots Vegetation Databanks Classification of Vegetation Aims and Criteria Braun-Blanquet Approach Numerical Approaches Integrating the Different Approaches Phytosociological Tables Phytosociological Ranks and Nomenclature Other Levels of Classification Synusial approaches Symphytosociological approaches Applied Phytosociology Ecological Assessment Vegetation Maps Monitoring Temporal Change Nature Conservation See also Further Reading Pioneer Species Introduction Pioneers in Primary Succession Pioneers in Secondary Succession See also Further Reading Plant Competition Introduction The Competition Concept Theoretical Models of Plant Competition Nonspatial Deterministic Models The Lotka-Volterra Competition Model Tilman’s Resource-Reduction Competition Model Multispecies Metapopulation Models Spatial and Stochastic Models Neutral Models Spatial Lotka-Volterra Competition Models Ecophysiological Models Mechanisms of Competition for Nutrients and for Light Self-Assembling Model of Modular Plants Toward a Hierarchical View of Ecological Interactions See also Further Reading Plant Defense Introduction What Is Plant Defense? Evolution of Plant Defense Ecology of Plant Defense Plant Defense Theory: Challenges of Testing Hypotheses about Plant Defense Effect of Plant Defense in an Ecosystem Humans as Consumers of Plants Conclusion See also Further Reading Plant Defense Strategies Introduction Anatomical Defense and Mechanical Barriers Chemical Defense Constitutive Defense Alkaloids Terpenoids Phenolic compounds Saponins Fluorinated natural products Amino acids and plant proteins Activated Defense Benzoxazinoids Iridoid glucosides Cyanogenic glycosides Glucosinolates Induced Defense Elicitors, signal reception, and signaling cascades Induced defense reactions Emission of volatiles Extrafloral nectaries Protease inhibitors Generation of phytoalexins Conclusions See also Further Reading Plant Demography Introduction Life Histories of Plants Annual Plants Monocarpic Perennials Polycarpic Perennials Population Structure Demographic Traits Reproduction Dispersal Seed Germination and Seedling Establishment Plant Growth and Survivorship Factors Affecting Demographic Traits Competition Predation Herbivory Pollination Disturbances Modeling Population Dynamics Concluding Remarks See also Further Reading Plant Ecology Plant Ecology Light Water Nutrients Plant Interactions Plant Community Dynamics Summary See also Further Reading Plant Growth Models Introduction A Simplified Overview of Plant Composition Roles of Organs Plant Biomass Composition Plant Morphogenesis: Necessary and Sufficient Knowledge for Plant Growth Modeling Botany and Plant Development Ecophysiology and Plant Functioning Role of environmental factors Plant functioning (respiration) A common pool of biomass Dry matter partitioning Roles of organs in the plant functioning Role of leaves Role of stems and their constitutive internodes Role of fruits Role of roots Modeling Plant Development and Plant Growth GMs and the Simulation of Plant Development PBMs and the Simulation of Plant Growth Functional Structural Models and the Simulation of Plant Growth and Development Factorization of plant architecture The mathematical equations of plant functioning Biomass acquisition Biomass distribution The general equation of plant growth Estimation of model parameters from experimental data: From architecture to functioning Applications of functional structural models Conclusion See also Further Reading Plant Physiology What Is Physiology? What Is Ecology? Plant Physiology: Function of Plants and Their Parts The Parts The Functions Biochemical functions Developmental functions Plant Ecology: All Conditions of Its Existence Abiotic Factors Biotic Factors Photosynthesis: A Special Case Story Scalar Levels in Space and Time Environmental Control Parameters Hydraulic limitation High irradiance Carbon dioxide (CO2) Impact at the Community Level: From Physiological Autecology to Physiological Synecology General Importance of Physiological Processes for Fitness at the Community Level See also Further Reading Plutonium Plutonium Sources Plutonium Properties Environmental Transport and Pathways of Exposure Mechanisms of Plutonium Toxicity Plutonium Ecotoxicity Environmental Risk - Humans See also Further Reading Poikilotherms Etymology and Definitions Evolutionary Adaptations to Poikilothermy and Its Ecological Implications Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Polar Terrestrial Ecology The Future: Polar Regions and Climate Change See also Further Reading Pollination Introduction and Definitions Pollination from an Evolutionary Point of View Preparing for Dispersal Pollen Presentation and Dispersal Mechanisms Factors Affecting Pollen Exposure, Dispersal, and Success See also Further Reading Pollution Indices Introduction Biological Indicators: A Recall Definition and Selection Biological Indicators in Different Environments Terrestrial environment: A brief outline Continental waters: An outline Marine waters From the Indicators to the Indices Biological indices in the terrestrial environment: A brief outline Biological indices in continental waters: an outline Biological indices in marine waters Trophic indices lsquoSubjective’ versus lsquoobjective’ index Various other indices Conclusion See also Further Reading Polychaetes/Amphipode Index Benthic Ecosystems: A Synopsis on Research Trends Ecological Quality and Ecological Indicators Polychaetes/Amphipode Index Distribution of Polychaeta and Amphipoda in Coastal Communities Definition of the Polychaeta/Amphipoda Index Function and Evaluation of the P/A Index Soft-substratum communities Hard-substratum communities Perspectives and pitfalls General Remarks See also Further Reading Polychlorinated Biphenyls Properties, Production, and Environmental Sources of PCBs Structure and Properties Production, Use and Legislation Sources to the Environment Exposure of Biota to PCBs Environmental Transport and Abiotic Degradation Exposure Routes Behavior of PCBs in Biota Absorption and Excretion Metabolism Biomagnification Toxicology Toxic modes of action for coplanar PCBs Toxic modes of action for noncoplanar PCBs Effects of PCBs on Populations See also Further Reading Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Introduction General Information about PAHs What Are PAHs? Alkylated PAHs Physicochemical Properties Important for Toxicity Assessment Sources of PAHs Why Are PAHs Important for Ecotoxicology? Factors That Affect Bioaccumulation and Toxicity Biotransformation Route of Exposure Lipid Trophic Transfer Photoactivation Toxicity Environmental Stressors Toxicity of PAHs to Biota Known Mechanisms of Toxicity Common Biological Responses The lethal response Sublethal responses Immunotoxicity Growth and development Endocrine disruption and reproductive effects Mutagenicity and neoplasia General Toxicity Information Plants Invertebrates Terrestrial invertebrates Aquatic invertebrates Vertebrates Birds Reptiles Amphibians Summary and Conclusions See also Further Reading Population and Community Interactions Introduction Classification of Population Interactions Competition Commensalism Allelopathy Mutualism Predator-Prey Interactions Community Assembly Physiological Variability in Stoichiometry Extensions Summary See also Further Reading Population Viability Analysis Introduction Concepts and Theory Methods Simple Models Computer Simulations Example: Grizzly Bears in Yellowstone National Park, USA Research Needs See also Further Reading Populations: r- and K-Selection See also Further Reading Precaution and Ecological Risk The Different Meanings of Precaution The Precautionary Principle Components of Risk Risk Management Principles An Example Political Relevance Summary See also Further Reading Precipitation Pattern Introduction Mean Global Precipitation Patterns Air Temperature Warming of the Lower Air Layers The Availability of Water for the Evaporation Stability or Instability of Atmospheric Layering Mountain Ranges Transport of Masses of More Humid Air from Sea to Land Self-Intensification Effects Caused by the Ground Surface Seasonal Variance of Solar Radiation Equatorial Areas Sea-Land Currents and Mountain Ranges High Pressure Regions with High Annual Sums of Precipitation Areas with Little or no Precipitation Areas with Moderate Precipitation Variation of Global Precipitation Patterns Trends of Global Precipitation The Antarctic Particular Precipitation Phenomena El Nintildeo Tropical Cyclones Data Basis See also Further Reading Predation Introduction Energetics Dynamics of the Predator-Prey System Predator and Prey: Survival Strategies General Bodily Organization and Size of the Predator Kind of Predatory Strategy Adopted General Environmental Conditions Where Predation is Practiced Defensive Strategies of the Main Prey Items Available in the Environment Habitat Structure, Seasonality, and Predation Habitat Structure Landscape scale Habitat scale Microhabitat scale Seasonality Conservation Issues See also Further Reading Prey-Predator Models The Lotka-Volterra Model The Functional and Numerical Response Effects of Functional and Numerical Responses on Prey-Predator Stability Prey Growth Is Density Independent Effects of the Holling type functional responses on population dynamics Functional and numerical responses depend on the predator density Prey Growth Is Density Dependent Inhomogeneous Environment Stability Caused by Asynchrony in Local Dynamics Predator Aggregation Stability and Complexity in Prey-Predators Models Summary See also Further Reading Principal Components Analysis Introduction An Informal Explanation Calculation of PCA Presentation and Interpretation of PCA Results Numerical Scale: Transformation and Standardization Biplot Scaling Adequacy of the PCA Solution Assumptions, Limitations, and Other Considerations Summary See also Further Reading R Radiation Balance and Solar Radiation Spectrum Introduction Solar Constant and Solar Spectrum Solar Radiation Flow in the Earth’s Surface-Atmosphere System The Nature of Terrestrial Radiation Annual Global Mean Radiation Balance Summary See also Further Reading Radiation Ecology Effects of Radioactive Contaminants Fates and Movements of Radioactive Contaminants in the Environment Radioactive Tracer Studies Contaminants as Tracers: The Chernobyl Nuclear Accident Turnover and Elimination of Radioactive Contaminants Radioactive Contaminants in Human Food Chains Radiocesium: A radioactive contaminant of concern The Rise, Fall, and Future Needs for Radioecology See also Further Reading Radioactivity Introduction General Approach to ERA for Radiation and Radioactivity Conceptual Site Model Exposure Dosimetry Absorbed Fraction Weighting Factor for Internally Deposited Radionuclides Reference Dose Rates Assessing Effects Final Comments See also Further Reading Radionuclides: Their Biogeochemical Cycles and the Impacts on the Biosphere Introduction Nuclear Weapons Tests as a Source Fallout Collection and Sampling Pathway of Radionuclides and Transport Processes in the Atmosphere Natural Radionuclides Used as Tracers for Global Model Validation Sampling Method of Radionuclides in the Atmosphere Pathways of Radionuclides and Transport Processes in the Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems Interception Processes Runoff Processes Soil Infiltration Processes Resuspension Processes Underground Water Transport Processes Uptake Processes Biogeochemical Cycles of Long-Lived Radionuclides Radioecological Effects of Radionuclides after the Chernobyl Accident Summary and Conclusions See also Further Reading Reaeration Introduction Physicochemical Processes of Gas Transfer Mass Flux and Transfer Velocity KL Bottom-Shear-Generated Turbulence in Stream or River Flows Wind Shear Buoyant Convection Instability of the Water Surface: Bubbles and Sprays Film-Free and Film-Covered Interfaces Chemical Reactivity Temperature Predictive Equations for Reaeration Rates Conceptual Models Empirical Equations for Stream Turbulence Empirical Equations for Wind-Induced Turbulence Empirical Equations for Combined Wind- and Bottom-Shear-Induced Turbulence See also Further Reading Recruitment Introduction and Definitions Measuring Recruitment Variation in Recruitment: Causes and Magnitude Assessing the Role of Variation in Recruitment on Population Dynamics Immediate and Delayed Effects of Recruitment Variation on Population Dynamics See also Further Reading Remote Sensing Introduction What Is Remote Sensing? Brief History of Remote Sensing Basic Concepts EM spectrum What is an image? Different platforms and orbits Passive versus active remote sensing What qualities determine what can be identified in an image? Remotely Sensed Data Sets for Ecological Modeling Land Cover Landscape metrics Vegetation Characteristics Topography Soil Moisture Surface Temperature and Precipitation Atmospheric Properties (Clouds) Oceans Inland Water (Streams, Lakes, Wetlands, etc.) Accuracy Assessment and Validation Summary See also Further Reading Reproductive Toxicity Introduction Scope of the Issue Standard Approach to Reproductive Toxicity Assessment - Hazard Quotients Other Approaches to Reproductive Toxicity Assessment Looking to the Future Does Reproductive Toxicity Really Need to Be Evaluated? Summary See also Further Reading Resilience Introduction Types of Resilience Engineering Resilience Resilience with Multiple Domains Resilience and Temporal Variability Resilience and Biodiversity Resilience and Management of Biotic Resources See also Further Reading Resistance and Buffer Capacity Introduction Scope of This Article Individual Characters that Affect Resistance Population-Level Factors That Affect Resistance Genetic Diversity Density Dependence Connectivity Management Considerations See also Further Reading Respiration Glossary Introduction Environmental Impact of Cellular Respiration Biochemistry and Genetics of Cellular Respiration Diversity in Electron Donors and Acceptors Mitochondrial ETS Mitochondrial Genetics Microbial Ecology of Cellular Respiration Chemoorganotrophy Chemolithotrophy Evolution of Cellular Respiration Economy of Cellular Respiration Evolution of Electron Transport Acquisition of Cellular Respiration by Eukaryotes Physiological Ecology of Respiration in Animals Water versus Air Breathing Gas Exchange in Birds and Mammals See also Further Reading Retrospective Analysis A Retrospective Approach to Complex Systems Analysis Key System Properties in a Retrospective Analysis Ecological Resilience Vulnerability and Fragility System Adaptability Cross-Scale Effects Retrospective Analysis at Multiple Scales: Examples Large Systems’ Dynamics through Remote Sensing Assessing Retrospective Fragility in Grasslands: An Italian Case Study Western Australia Agricultural Region Example Conclusions See also Further Reading Rhizosphere Ecology Introduction Rhizosphere Food Web Biotic and Abiotic Influences on Rhizosphere Properties Plant Modification of Soil Characteristics Biotic Influences on Rhizosphere Properties Methods of Studying Rhizosphere Ecology Summary See also Further Reading Riparian Wetlands Introduction Definitions and Concepts Environmental Conditions Determining Riparian Wetlands Spatial and Temporal Scales Climatic Region Valley Size, Morphology, and Connectivity Hydrology and Substrate Type Vegetation Types of Riparian Wetlands Hygropetric Zone Rockpools Parafluvial and Orthofluvial Ponds Riparian Flood Zones Riparian Valley Swamps Hillside Wetlands Logjam Ponds and Beaver Ponds Typical Biota and Biodiversity in Riparian Wetlands Ecological Services of Riparian Wetlands Nutrient Buffering Carbon Cycle Hydrological Buffering and Local Climate Corridor Function for Migrating Species Refugia and Feeding Ground for Riverine Biota Reciprocal Subsidies between Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems Recreation Conservation See also Further Reading Riparian Zone Management and Restoration Introduction The Riparian Zone and Its Elements Riparian Buffer Zones and Buffer Strips Functions of Riparian Buffer Zones Buffering of Overland and Subsurface Flow Shading and Filtering by Canopies Shading effect Filtering effect Dimensioning of Buffer Zones and Buffer Strips Assessment of Efficiency of Riparian Buffer Zones and Buffer Strips Case Studies on Nutrient Budgets in Riparian Buffer Zones See also Further Reading Risk Management Safety Factor Introduction Safety Factors Intraspecies Heterogeneity Interspecies Extrapolation Acute-to-Chronic Comparisons LOAEC-to-NOAEC Extrapolations Laboratory-to-Field Extrapolations Other Safety Factors Alternative Methods for Incorporating Uncertainty Precaution Summary See also Further Reading River Models Rivers and Their Watersheds River Corridor Floodplains Channel Structure Pools and Riffles River Vegetation River Continuum Concept Ecological Impacts of Flow Water Quality Sediment Dissolved Oxygen Water Temperature Chemical and Nutrient Characteristics Biotic Communities Ecological Connectivity Dynamic Equilibrium Impact of Climate Change Non-Native Species Restoring Degraded River Systems River Ecosystem Models and Modeling See also Further Reading Relevant Website Rivers and Streams: Ecosystem Dynamics and Integrating Paradigms Introduction Energy Flux Energy Sources Feeding Roles and Food Webs Flux of Matter Nutrient Cycles and Spiraling Transport and Storage of OM State of the OM Sources of the OM Physical, chemical, and biological retention potential Integrative Paradigms in Lotic Ecology The RCC Other Paradigms Serial discontinuity Hierarchical scales Ecotones Riparian zone influences Flood pulse concept Hyporheic dynamics Hydraulic stream ecology Patch dynamics Network dynamics Conservation and Human Alterations of Streams and Rivers See also Further Reading Rivers and Streams: Physical Setting and Adapted Biota Introduction History of the Discipline of Stream and River Ecology The Physical and Chemical Setting Hydrologic Processes Geomorphic Processes Channel Morphology Physical Factors Current Substrate Temperature Water Chemistry The Adapted Biota Algae Macrophytes Benthic Macroinvertebrates Fishes See also Further Reading Rocky Intertidal Zone Introduction Physical Aspects of the Shore Tides Characteristics of the Shore Attached Organisms Algae Sessile Invertebrates Mobile Organisms Invertebrates Vertebrates Zonation Patterns Causes Rocky Intertidal Shores as an Important System in Development of Ecology Descriptive Studies: Research Prior to 1960 The Rise of Experimental Studies: 1960-80 Supply-Side Ecology and External Drivers: 1980-2005 Unresolved Problems and Future Directions See also Further Reading r-Strategist/K-Strategists Introduction Historical Development of the r/K Concept Problems of the r/K Concept Aspects of the r/K Concept Used Today Fast and Slow Life Histories Observed patterns Allometric models Density-Dependent Selection Summary See also Further Reading S Saline and Soda Lakes Introduction Geographic Aspects Environmental and Biological Characteristics Examples of Ecological Processes Eastern African Soda Lakes Mono Lake Dead Sea Economic Aspects See also Further Reading Salinity Introduction Definitions and Measures Sources of Salt Adaptations to Salinity Scales of Salinity Variations Fine Spatial Scales Broad Spatial Scales Fine Temporal Scales Broad Temporal Scales Summary See also Further Reading Salt Marshes Physiography Extent Habitat Diversity Salt Marsh Plants Salt Marsh Animals Ecology Vegetation and Soils Food Webs Ecosystem Services Challenges for Salt Marsh Conservation Habitat Loss Eutrophication Sediment Supply Global Change Invasive Species Chemical Contamination Research Value Community Ecology Ecosystem Functioning Integrating Structure and Function Restoration See also Further Reading Saprobic System Introduction Saprobic System and Its Components Categories of Saprobity Categories of limnosaprobity Saprobic Index Saprobic Value Saprobic Valences Indication Weight Identification Level History and Present State See also Further Reading Savanna Introduction Definition and Occurrence Savannas of Australia, Africa, and South America Adaptive Traits of Savanna Vegetation Environmental Factors Determining Savanna Structure Available Moisture and Nutrients Fire Herbivory Conceptual Models of Tree and Grass Coexistence Savanna Biomass and Productivity Threats to Long-Term Sustainability See also Further Reading Scale Scales of Measurement Ecological Kinetics Ecological Energetics Ecological Hierarchies Hierarchical Organization Multiscale Models Boundary Recognition and Measurement Ecological Scaling Spatial and Temporal Scaling Allometric Scaling Metabolic Scaling See also Further Reading Scavengers Introduction Scavenging as a Trophic Interaction Who Scavenges? Ecological Effects of Scavengers Behavior Modification of Carnivores Behavior Modification of Herbivores Carnivore-Scavenger Interactions Summary See also Further Reading Schroumldinger’s Ratio The Schrödinger Ratio Schrödinger Ratio Assessment: The R/B Ratio Specific Entropy Production or Specific Dissipation Specific Dissipation in Lake Ecosystems See also Further Reading Seasonality Introduction Rainfall Oceanic Upwelling Photoperiod Temperature Summary See also Further Reading Sediment Retention and Release Introduction Chemical Reactions Organic Matter Decomposition Other Redox Reactions Mineral Formation and Weathering Adsorption Cation Exchange Processes at the Freshwater-Seawater Interface Transport Processes Molecular and Ionic Diffusion Advection Bioturbation Bioirrigation Hydrodynamic Dispersion Measuring Nutrient and Contaminant Fluxes in Sediments Porewater Sampling: Squeezing, Peepers, DGT, Microelectrodes Benthic Flux Chamber Measurements Sequential Extraction Methods See also Further Reading Sediments: Setting, Transport, Mineralization, and Modeling Net Deposition as an Aggregated Approach Theoretical Models Sedimentation Sediment Transport Sorption Sorption and Transport Production and Decay of Organic Matter Parameter Estimation in Sediment Submodels See also Further Reading Seed Dispersal Background Advantages of Dispersal Mechanisms of Dispersal Secondary Dispersal Long-Distance Seed Dispersal Plant and Animal Adaptations Fruiting Phenology Quantitative and Qualitative Components of Seed Dispersal Effectiveness Linking Seed Dispersal Patterns with Seedling Establishment Consequences of Seed Dispersal for Population Genetic Structure Plant-Frugivore Networks: Interpreting the Biodiversity of Interactions Implications of Seed Dispersal for Conservation See also Further Reading Self-Organization Introduction Historical Comments Theories of Self-Organization Thermodynamic Basis The Network Model Encapsulation Connectivity and Criticality Self-Organized Criticality Feedback Stigmergy Synchronization Complex Adaptive Systems Artificial Life Self-Organization in an Ecological Setting Social Groups Persistence and Stability in Ecosystems Communities versus Assemblages Food Webs Spatial Patterns and Processes Self-Organization in the Biosphere Evolution Practical Considerations See also Further Reading Self-Organizing Map Introduction Learning Procedure Ordination and Classification Large-Scale Data Future Directions See also Further Reading Semiotic Ecology Introduction Semiotic Ecology History of Biosemiotics Physical versus Semiotic Approach Principles of Biosemiotics Diversification Organic Design Semiotic Concept of Ecosystem Human Environmental Design See also Further Reading Sensitivity and Uncertainty Introduction Background Sources of Uncertainty Addressing Uncertainty Sensitivity Analysis Introduction Sampling-Based SA Methods Uncertainty Analysis Introduction Description of Input Uncertainties Uncertainty Propagation Uncertainty Importance Analysis Summary See also Further Reading Sensitivity, Calibration, Validation, Verification Introduction Sensitivity Calibration Testing See also Further Reading Sewage Sludge Technologies Abbreviation Introduction and Definitions Sewage Sludge Properties and Ecology Sewage Sludge Properties Ecology Activated Sludge Processes for Wastewater Treatment General Statement of Activated Sludge Processes Pretreatment and Primary Treatment Secondary Wastewater Treatment Nutrient Removal Mechanisms Settling and Clarification Strategies for Modeling Integrated Activated Sludge Processes Control of Activated Sludge Processes Sludge Processing Sludge Processing Overview Thickening and Flotation Sludge Stabilization Sludge Conditioning Conventional Sludge Dewatering and Drying Reed Drying Beds Sludge Immersion Drying See also Further Reading Sex Ratio Introduction Mechanisms Underlining Sex Ratio Population Dynamics Consequences of Sex Ratio Variation Dynamics of Sex Ratio and ESS Models Sex Ratio Effects on Population Growth Rate Evolutionary Aspects of Variation in Sex Ratio Breeding System and Sex Ratio Mating System and Sex Ratio The Optimum Sex Ratio is Context-Specific Variation in Sex Ratio across Taxa Male Competition and Sexual Selection Environmental Effects on Sex Ratio The lsquoCheaper-Sex’ Hypothesis Sex Ratio and Environment in Plants Sex Ratio and Environment in Animals Sex Ratio and Consumer-Resource Interactions See also Further Reading Shannon-Wiener Index Introduction Ecological Indicators Ecological Indices Species Diversity Indices Evenness or Equitability The Shannon-Wiener Index Applications of Species Diversity Indices Summary See also Further Reading Simpson Index Introduction The Index Contrasting Components of Diversity Application without Identification See also Further Reading Simulated Annealing Introduction Solution Process Selection of Moves Annealing Acceptance Criterion Applications in Ecological Management Example: Application in Ecological Management Behavior of Search Process Summary See also Further Reading Social Behavior Introduction Foraging Territoriality Mating Behavior Societies Conclusion See also Further Reading Socioecological Systems Socioecological Systems Key Features of SESs How Humans and Environment Are Coupled: Examples SESs’ Management SESs and Social Learning Social Adaptive Responses to Ecosystem Change Conclusions See also Further Reading Software Introduction Models Extendable Models Modeling Systems Systems Dynamics Tools Systems Diagrams Modeling Languages, Libraries, and Environments Spreadsheets Mathematical Solvers Environments Agent-Based Tools Conclusions See also Further Reading Soil Ecology Introduction Components and Characteristics of Soils Soil Biota Diversity of Soil Organisms Conceptual Organization of Soil Organisms The Role of Organisms in Soil Functions and Processes Conclusions See also Further Reading Soil Erosion by Water Definition and Description of Process Natural versus Human The History of Soil Erosion Causes and Types of Erosion Factors Influencing Erosion Influence of Climate Rainfall Characteristics Topography Channels Soil Characteristics Land-Use and -Management Factors Influencing Erosion Soil Erosion in Croplands Soil Erosion in Rangelands Soil Erosion in Forests Measurement and Estimation of Erosion Direct Indirect Conclusion See also Further Reading Soil Formation Introduction Definitions of Soil Soil-Forming Factors Mineral Weathering The Soil Profile and Soil Horizons The Ecological Significance of Soil Formation See also Further Reading Soil Movement by Tillage and Other Agricultural Activities Introduction Soil and Crop Management Practices Soil Movement by Tillage Vertical Movement of Soil Horizontal Movement of Soil Land Improvement and Management Practices Land Leveling Land Forming Terraces Water and sediment control basins Surface drainage Soil Erosion Wind and Water Erosion Tillage Translocation and Tillage Erosion Tillage translocation Tillage erosion Reducing Soil Movement and Soil Erosion through Conservation Tillage Soil Loss Due to Root Crop Harvesting Soil-Landscape Restoration See also Further Reading Spatial Distribution The Distribution of Organisms Over Landscapes Dispersion of Individuals Biological Impacts on Spatial Patterns Optimal Group Size Population-Level Variation in Dispersion Patterns Processes Mediated by Spatial Structuring of Populations Predator-Prey Interactions Large-Scale Distribution Patterns Summary See also Further Reading Spatial Distribution Models Definitions Population Dispersal Metapopulations The Levins model The source-sink (BIDE) model Stochastic Events Dispersion - Spatial Scale Spatially Explicit Models See also Further Reading Spatial Models and Geographic Information Systems Introduction GIS Historical Development of GIS Error Problem of GIS Multiscale Problem Real-Time Problem of GIS Direct Modeling Problem YUE-HASM Summary Further Reading Spatial Subsidy Introduction and Definition Movement of Nutrients Movement of Food Resources Movement of Consumers The Importance of Spatial Subsidy Anthropogenic Alterations Conservation Implications Summary See also Further Reading Specific Exergy as Ecosystem Health Indicator Introduction Specific Exergy as Ecosystem Health Indicator Application of Eco-Exergy for the Health Assessment of Ecosystems See also Further Reading Stability Common Patterns of Dynamic Behavior Seasonal Variation Random Variation without Trend Population Outbursts Exponential Increase and Decline The Balance of Nature The Functional School and the Role of Density-Dependent Biotic Interactions in Population Regulation The Environmental School and the Role of Climate and Other Environmental Factors in Limiting Population Growth Combining Biotic and Physical Factors Measuring the Variability of Populations See also Further Reading Stability versus Complexity Introduction Population Equations, Community Matrix, and Lyapunov Stability Lotka-Volterra Population Equations and Dissipative Matrices Qualitative Stability and Sign-Stable Community Matrices Niche Overlap and Stability of lsquoHorizontally Structured’ Communities Stable Metapopulations Persisting among Locally Unstable Habitats Concluding Remarks See also Further Reading Statistical Methods Introduction When Considering a Single Biological Model Casting the Population Model as a Statistical Model Point Estimation: Fitting the Model to Data Models with observation error only Models with process error only Models with both observation and process error Interval Estimation: Our Confidence in the Parameter Estimates Likelihood ratio distribution Parametric bootstrapping When Things Are Not so Ideal When Considering Multiple Biological Models See also Further Reading Statistical Prediction Introduction Regression-Based Methods Linear Models Simple and multiple linear regression models ANOVA and ANCOVA models Indicator variables regression Logistic regression models Generalized linear models Quantile regression Nonlinear Models Nonlinear regression models Generalized additive models Special Cases of Regression-Based Methods Correlated data models Factor analysis and structural equation models Classification and regression trees Artificial neural networks Statistical calibration of process-based simulation models Nonregression-Based Methods Hierarchical Models Bayesian Models Bayesian Belief Networks Using Models for Prediction Selecting a Model Framework See also Further Reading Steppes and Prairies Grasslands Grassland Types The Grassland Environment Fire in Grasslands Impact of Fire on Consumers Direct effects Indirect effects Grazing in Grasslands Threats to Grasslands and Restoration of Grasslands Conservation and Restoration See also Further Reading Stream Management Introduction Ecological Engineering and Streams Ecological Stream Management Goals and Strategies Ecological Challenges The Stream Ecosystem Physical Components Hydrology Geomorphology Temperature and light Chemical Components Nutrients Metals Acidity and salinity Pesticides and organic compounds Biological Components Species diversity Ecosystem Component Interactions Summary See also Further Reading Stream Restoration Introduction Ecological Engineering and Stream Restoration Ecological Stream Restoration Restoration Goals and Strategies Ecological Challenges Stream Ecology and Threats to Ecological Integrity Ecosystem Component Interactions Examples of Ecological Stream Restoration The Kissimmee River, Florida The Skjern River, Denmark Summary See also Further Reading Structural Dynamic Models Introduction Mass Balance Models in Ecosystems Feedbacks in Ecosystem Actual Approaches to Model the Structural Dynamics Bottom-Up Approach Experiments and observations An example of the bottom-up approach Holistic Approach Exergy Applications of Structural Dynamic Models Summary See also Further Reading Structure and History of Life Introduction Microlevels of the Life Organization Chemistry of Life Level of Cell Level of Organism Life as Ecological Phenomena Ecological Macrosystems Life as Geological Factor Geography of Life History of Life Origin of Life Main Stages of the Life Evolution Human Mind as a Stage of the Life Evolution Perspectives of Life Summary See also Further Reading Succession Introduction Different Kinds of Succession Expected Community Trends of Succession Models of Succession Factors Influencing Succession The Role of Competition and Life History Is Succession Real? Some Examples of Succession Succession in the Fossil Record Applications to Restoration Ecology See also Further Reading Sulfur Cycle Sulfur Cycle Sulfur Oxidation Chemosynthetic Sulfur Oxidation Geochemical Implications of Sulfur Oxidation Applications Sulfur Bacteria in Symbiosis Photosynthetic Sulfur Oxidation Mixotrophy Sulfate Reduction Assimilatory Sulfate Reduction Dissimilatory Reduction Abundance, Physiological Groups, and Taxonomic Diversity Sulfur-reducing activity Sulfur disproportionation Use of Heavy Isotopes in Ecology Geochemical Implications of SRBs and SRA SRA Implications on Climate Applications Fluxes of the Global Biogeochemical Sulfur Cycle Summary See also Further Reading Support Vector Machines Introduction Support Vector Machines Structural Risk Minimization Separating Hyperplanes Optimal Margin Hyperplanes Soft Margin Hyperplanes Support Vectors in Nonlinear Feature Spaces Leave-One-Out Cross-Validation See also See also Further Reading Relevant Website Suspension Feeders What Is Suspension Feeding? Organisms That Suspension Feed Mechanisms of Particle Contact Retaining Contacted Particles Suspension Feeding in More Complicated Flow Regimes Ecological Interactions Related to Suspension Feeding See also Further Reading Sustainable Development Ecology and the Web of Life Ecological Stress Sustainable Development Education and Sustainable Development Sustainable Development: Not an Option, but a Twenty-First-Century Imperative See also Further Reading Swamps Introduction General Properties of a Swamp Hydrology Soils Vegetation Ecological Functions Hydrology Water quality Habitat Terrestrial Aquatic Restoration Ecosystem Services and Values See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Sympatry Introduction Sympatry: Primary or Secondary Contact? Case Studies Comparative Approaches Sympatric Speciation: Models and Mechanisms Theoretical Considerations Experimental Evidence Evidence from Nature Polyploidy and Hybrid Speciation Prevalence Examples See also Further Reading Synecology See also Further Reading Synthetic Polymers Introduction Bulk Solid Polymers/Plastics Emulsion/Dispersion Polymers Acute Aquatic Toxicity Chronic Aquatic Toxicity Sediment and Terrestrial Organism Toxicity Water-Soluble/Swellable Polymers Polyacrylic Acid Aquatic acute ecotoxicity Algal toxicity Chronic toxicity Terrestrial organism toxicity Biodegradable Water-Soluble Polymers Charged/Uncharged Polymers Cationic, Anionic, Nonionic, and Amphoteric Polymers (Including Quarternary Aminoesters) Fluoropolymers See also Further Reading System Omnivory Index Introduction Measuring Complexity Definition Properties Number of Links Weight of Links Aggregation Capabilities See also Further Reading Systems Ecology Introduction Systems Ecology Complex Ecological Systems Open Systems Hierarchical Organization Self-Organization Self-Regulation The Systems Approach Conceptualization Quantification Evaluation/Validation Application Iterative Nature of Systems Analysis Summary See also Further Reading T Taxis Glossary Introduction Organisms Move Taxes versus Other Types of Orientation (Kineses, Tropisms) Types of Stimuli, Sensors, and Searching Behaviors Neurophysiological Requirements for Tropotaxis Neurophysiological Requirements for Klinotaxis Role of Habitat and Environment Two-Dimensional versus Three-Dimensional Tracking The Role of Organism Size Challenges That Remain Why Should Humans Care about Taxes? See also Further Reading Technology for Sustainability See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Temperate Forest Introduction Physiography, Climate, and the Temperate Forest Biome Climatic and Physiographic Controls on the Distribution of Temperate Forests Climatic and Physiographic Subdivisions Disturbance and Forest Structure Structural Layers of Vegetation Soils and Woody Debris Ecological Communities and Succession Vegetation Communities Temperate Forest Fauna Water and Energy Flow, Nutrient Cycling, and Carbon Balance Water, Evapotranspiration, and Energy Nutrient Cycling and Carbon Balance Temperate Forest Land Cover Historical Land Cover and Land-Cover Change Present-Day Land Cover and Rates of Change See also Further Reading Temperature Patterns Introduction Meteorological Temperature Measurements Global Patterns of the SAT: Climatology Annual Mean Temperature Annual Cycle of the Global Temperature Global Patterns of the SAT: Variability and Trends Subseasonal Variability and Temperature Extremes Interannual Variability Decadal-Scale Variability Trends Summary See also Further Reading Temperature Regulation Physiological Function of Thermoregulation (The lsquoWhy’) Biological Mechanisms of Thermoregulation (The lsquoHow’) Thermoregulation Using External Heat Sources Conduction Convection Radiation Evaporation Thermoregulation Using Internal Heat Sources Metabolic heat generation Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Temporary Waters Overview What Are Temporary Waters, and Why Are They of Interest Ecologically? What Is Covered in This Article? Introducing Temporary Waters Definition Important Variables Geography Biome Water body type Substrate Size Hydrology Water sources Flood timing Flood duration, or hydroperiod Chemistry Distribution of Temporary Waters Tropical rainforests Boreal and temperate forests Tundra and icefields Mediterranean scrub Deserts Grasslands The Ecology of Temporary Waters The Biota Autecology: Organisms and Populations Adaptations to drying Diapause Other dormancy Avoidance Physiological ecology Populations Bet hedging Life-history strategies Complex life histories Dispersal, population maintenance, and evolutionary ecology Community Ecology Community theory Interspecific interactions Ecosystem Ecology Applied Ecology Vector Control Ecological Engineering and Conservation See also Further Reading Teratogenesis Introduction Types of Environmental Teratogens Mechanical Disruptors Chemical Contaminants Endocrine disrupting compounds Environmental Factors Teratogenic Effects Stage of Development and Species Susceptibility Common Stages of Development Species Susceptibility Wildlife Teratogenesis Invertebrates Fishes Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals Summary See also Further Reading Terrestrial Arthropods Introduction Density-Independent Effects Density-Dependent Effects Cyclic Population Dynamics Anthropogenic Effects on Arthropod Population Dynamics Models of Arthropod Population Dynamics Local Extinction and Metapopulation Dynamics Summary See also Further Reading The Significance of O2 for Biology History of O2 on Earth PSII and the Generation of O2 The Reactive Properties of Oxygen Cytochrome c Oxidase Alternative Oxidase Plastid Terminal Oxidase RuBisCO Metabolic Consumption of O2 Final Comments See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Thermoregulation in Animals Introduction Some Fundamentals of Thermal Biology Biochemical and Cell Biological Aspects Physiological Adaptations and Regulatory Processes Thermoreception Metabolic Rate and Heat Regulation Adaptation to Different Temperatures Adaptation to Cold Seasons Morphological Adaptations Behavioral Adaptations Ontogeny of Thermal Reactions Evolutionary Considerations Combining Strategies, Living in Extremes See also Further Reading Tolerance Range Introduction The Physical Environment Fitness Effects Tolerance Ranges: Examples for Temperature Eurythermal species Stenothermal species Extreme limits Functional Determinants of Tolerance Limits Physiological Mechanisms Biochemical and Cellular Factors Enzymes Membranes Behavioral Tricks Changes in Tolerance Range Phenotypic Plasticity Acclimation Development Evolutionary Changes Tolerance to Multiple Stressors See also Further Reading Trace Elements Introduction Essential Trace Elements Iron Manganese Zinc Copper Cobalt, Nickel, Selenium, and Molybdenum Stoichiometric Relationships between Essential Trace Elements Uptake, Storage, and Efflux of Trace Elements Food Webs and Movement of Elements across Trophic Levels See also Further Reading Tragedy of the Ecological Commons Hardin’s Theoretical Assumptions Design Principles for Common-Property Institutions See also Further Reading Transport in Porous Media Introduction The Laboratory Scale The Field (Formation) Scale Flow and Transport in a Stratified Formation Transport in Formations of 3D Structures See also Further Reading Transport over Membranes Introduction Single-Process Membrane Separations Applications in Water Treatment Applications in the Food Industry Biomedical Applications Hybrid Membrane Processes Membrane Separations Coupled to Reactions Enzyme-based membrane reactors Whole cell membrane bioreactors Water treatment Production of biochemicals Waste gas treatment Energy production Membrane Separation Coupled to Advanced Oxidation Processes Membrane Separation Coupled to Adsorption Processes Conclusions and Further Directions See also Further Reading Tree Growth Problem History of Growth Modeling Growth as an Outcome of Opposing Forces Growth Expansion Growth Decline Adaptation and Two Forms of the Decline Module Solution: Combined Model of Tree Growth Additive Variants Parameter Interpretation Empirical Verification Is Tree Growth Limited? Strategy of Modeling See also Further Reading Trophic Classification for Lakes A Review of Ecological Indicators for Trophic Classification for Lakes A Case Study: Trophic Classification for Italian Lakes Using TSI Design and Calculation of TSI Study Area and Data Collection TSI Calculation and Trophic Classification Indicator selection Calculating sub-TSIs TSI(Chl-a) calculation Calculations of TSI(TP), TSI(SD), TSI(BA), TSI(BZ/BA), TSI(Ex), and TSI(Exst) Determining weighting factors (Wi) Trophic classification for Italian lakes Discussions Conclusions Acknowledgment See also Further Reading Trophic Index and Efficiency Introduction Trophic Status Indices TRIX Index Carlson’s Trophic State Index Trophic Diatom Indices Benthic TSI Oligochaete Trophic Index Trophic Level Index Trophic Index of Macrophytes Trophic Relation Indices Infaunal Trophic Index Marine Trophic Index Index of Trophic Completeness Summary See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Trophic Structure Introduction Control of Trophic Structure Bottom-Up Control Energy transfer to producers Energy transfer from producers to higher trophic levels Patterns of biomass accumulation Top-Down Control The lsquogreen world’ hypothesis Patterns of biomass accumulation Trophic cascades Importance of Bottom-Up versus Top-Down Control Factors Affecting Control of Trophic Structure Productivity Aquatic versus Terrestrial Ecosystems Differences in food chain length Differences in herbivore-producer linkage strength Trophic Position Heterogeneity Within Trophic Levels Antiherbivore defenses Heterogeneity in resource edibility Edible-inedible resource model Keystone predation model Antipredator behavior Generalist versus specialist predators Omnivory and intraguild predation Species/trophic diversity Temporal/Spatial Heterogeneity Stressful environments Refuge habitats See also Further Reading Tropical Ecology Geography of the Tropics Tropical Climates Temperature Precipitation El Nintildeo Southern Oscillation Seasonality Drives Many Ecological Processes Biogeography of Tropical Organisms Tropical Species Richness: Anyone’s Guess Tree Plots: A Wealth of Knowledge for Plant Ecology Interactions and Interdependencies of Tropical Species The Ficus Genus: Master of Many Trades Neotropical Peccaries Anthropogenic Impacts on Tropical Ecosystems Conclusions See also Further Reading Tropical Rainforest Introduction Definitions Distribution Climate and Soils Forest Structure Biodiversity Conservation Issues See also Further Reading Tropical Seasonal Forest Definitions and Distinctions What Difference Does a Dry Season Make? See also Further Reading Tundra Introduction The Periglacial Environment Landscape and Species Diversity Vegetation and Succession Ecosystem Structure and Function Special Adaptations to Tundra Conditions The muskox of Banks Island in Canada’s Northwest Territories Two Species of Bumble Bee from the Canadian Arctic Flightless Beetles of the Genus Parasystatus on Mount Kenya The Giant Lobelia and Its Insect Commensals on Kilimanjaro Global Warming and Other Anthropogenic Effects See also Further Reading Turnover Time Introduction Calculation of Turnover Time of Material and Energy Applications of Turnover Times in Ecosystem Analysis Turnover of Nutrients in Forests Species Turnover in Local Communities Lake Water Quality and Trophic State Conservative substances Nonconservative substances Nitrogen in Estuaries Summary Acknowledgment See also Further Reading U Units of Selection Are Genes the Units of Selection? When Genes Are Units of Selection: Selfish Genetic Elements Kin Selection and Group Selection Species Selection Hierarchical Selection and Evolutionary Novelty See also Further Reading Upwelling Ecosystems Introduction Upwelling Circulation General Characteristics Primary Production and Lower Trophic Levels Primary Production Phytoplankton Community Structure Oxygen Depletion Zooplankton Open-Ocean Upwelling Systems Fish and Higher Trophic Levels Small Pelagic Fish Fish Production Higher Trophic Levels Climatic Forcing El Nintildeo Long-Term Climate Variability See also Further Reading Uranium Uranium Sources Redox Chemistry Aqueous Chemistry Toxicity See also Further Reading Urban Systems Introduction Urbanization and Plant and Animal Communities Urban Habitats and Gradient Analyses Urban Systems and Ecosystem Services Urban Restoration Urban Landscapes as Arenas for Adaptive Management Linking Humans and Nature in the Urban Landscape See also Further Reading Urbanization as a Global Ecological Process Introduction and Definitions Past, Present, and Future of Urbanization Present and Future Dynamics of Urban Areas The City as a Specific Heterotrophic Ecosystem Environmental Effect of Urbanization and Ecological Footprint Carbon Balance in Urbanized Territories Conclusion See also Further Reading V Veterinary Medicines Introduction Fate and Exposure Routes Effects Scenarios Analysis of Drugs in the Environment See also Further Reading Visualization and Interaction Design for Ecosystem Modeling Introduction Background Lotka-Volterra Model and Textual Modeling Two-Dimensional System Dynamics Modeling Causal Graph Flow Graph Simulation with Visual Tools Three-Dimensional Integrative Modeling Model Visualization Integrative Approach to Visualization Visualizing the Predator-Prey Model Simulating the Predator-Prey Model Summary See also Further Reading Vitalism versus Physical-Chemical Explanations From Vitalism to Historicism Natural Science and Mechanicism Determinism and Development Useful Knowledge The Example of Thermodynamics Dissipative Structures Complexity Historical Ecology Ecological Equivalents and Vegetations Summary See also Further Reading Volatalization Significance of Biological Volatilization in Biogeochemical Cycling Mechanisms of Biological Volatilization Major Factors Affecting the Process of Biological Volatilization Plant Species and Soil Microbial Strains Concentrations and Chemical Forms Sulfur Concentrations Soil Organic Matter and Water Moisture Temperature, Redox Potential (or Aeration), and pH Plant and Soil Microbial Interactions Genetically Modified Plants for the Enhancement of Biological Volatilization Transfer of Volatile Compounds from Water to Air Flux Measurements of Volatilization Fate of Biogenic Volatile Se in the Atmosphere Significance of Biological Volatilization in Phytoremediation of Se Contamination See also Further Reading W Wastewater Treatment Models Introduction Wastewater Treatment Model Terminology WWTP Models Wastewater Treatment Model Compartments Activated Sludge Models (Suspended Growth Systems) Hydraulic Models Sedimentation Tank Models Physical-Chemical Models pH models Temperature Biofilm Models (Attached Growth Systems) Plant-Wide Models Guidelines for Application of WWTP Models A General Framework for Application of WWTP Models Objective Configuration Data Collection Calibration Validation Application Major Limitations of Activated Sludge Models See also Further Reading Water Availability Introduction Aquatic Organisms Temporary Aquatic Environments Permanent Aquatic Environments The Temporary/Permanent Aquatic Boundary Water Availability and Terrestrial Organisms in Desert Environments Seasonal Vegetation as a Food Source Influence of Spatial Heterogeneity of Water Conservation Summary See also Further Reading Water Cycle Introduction Movement of Water between Stores Hydrological Processes Extremes Human Impacts Climate Change - Acceleration of Water Cycle See also Further Reading Water Cycle Management Introduction Interconnection of Water, Landscape, and Society; The Impact of Humans on Water Cycle Basic Definitions Role of Plants in the Water Cycle - Linkage among Evapotranspiration and Energy Fluxes (Dissipation) Drainage Paradigm Recommendations for Sustainable Land Management Based on Shortening the Water Cycle See also Further Reading Watershed Management Introduction Landscape Factors of Nutrient Fluxes in Watersheds Critical Source Areas and Riparian Zones Ecological Engineering Measures for the Control of Nutrient Transport from Watersheds Riparian Buffer Zones and Buffer Strips Efficiency Assessment of Buffer Zones and Strips in Watershed Management The Case Study of the Porijotildegi River Catchment, Estonia CWs for Wastewater Treatment Estimation of Landscape Potential for CWs See also Further Reading Watershed Models Introduction Types of Models Deterministic (Mechanistic) Watershed Models Watershed Loading Models Components of the Deterministic Watershed Ecological Models Hydrological component Interaction of contaminants with soils and surface vegetation Soil erosion component Examples of watershed loading models Receiving Water Quality Models Example of ecologic water body models Regression-Based Statistical Models Principal component analysis multiregression models Canonical correspondence analysis Twenty-First Century Developments in Watershed Modeling See also Further Reading Wavelet Network Wavelet Network Neural Network Combining Neural Network with Wavelet Theory Wavelet Network Structure Wavelet Network Training Algorithm Wavelet Network Initialization Wavelet Decomposition of a Signal Dilation and Translation Continuous Wavelet Transform and Discrete Wavelet Transform See also Further Reading Waves as an Ecological Process Wave Mechanics Life in the Wave-Swept Environment Strategies for Survival in the Wave-Swept Environment Behavioral Strategies Strategies of Sessile Organisms Strength Flexibility and elasticity Size and numbers The Benefits of Life in a Wave-Swept Environment Reproduction and Fertilization Success Dispersal of Young Dispersal of Chemical Cues Feeding and Nutrient Uptake Ecological Consequences Disturbance and Patch Dynamics Productivity Climate Change and Wave Activity See also Further Reading Weathering Introduction Parametrized Convection Model with Volatile Exchange The Weathering Process Weathering and the Global Carbon Cycle Biogenic Enhancement of Weathering See also Further Reading Weed Control Models Introduction Mathematical Models in Weed Science Density-Independent Models Density-Dependent Models See also Further Reading Wetland Models Introduction Model Objectives Model Design Water Nutrients Habitat Animals Integrated Ecosystem See also Further Reading Wildlife Ecology Introduction Central Themes in Wildlife Ecology Habitat Resource Selection Patterns of Space Use Population Growth and Regulation Wildlife Genetics Application of Wildlife Ecology See also Further Reading Wind Effects Introduction Mean Wind Speed and Turbulence Laminar Flow and Turbulent Winds Wind over the Vegetated Surface Wind Pruning and Salt Spray Directional Growth Response Changes in Surface Roughness: The Edge Effect Turbulent Mixing and Trace Gas Exchange Evaporation and Transpiration Dispersal of Pollen, Spores, and Microorganisms Influence on Small Animals and Seed Dispersal Influence on Bird and Insect Migration No Wind Effect? Wind Chill and Heat Index Metabolic Stress by Wind Wind Throws and Wild Fires See also Further Reading Wind Shelterbelts Introduction Interactions between Wind and Trees Wind Parameters Ecological Effects of Wind Effects of Trees on Wind Tree Shelterbelts/Windbreaks Effects/Benefits of Shelterbelts Shelterbelt Structures Internal Structural Characteristics External Structural Characteristics Aerodynamic Parameters of Shelterbelt Determination of Optical Porosity Photographing Image Processing Error Analysis of Optical Porosity Wind Profiles near Shelterbelts Establishment and Management of Shelterbelts for Wind Protection Design of Shelterbelts Management of Shelterbelts See also Further Reading Wireless Sensor Networks Enabling Ecoinformatics Introduction Wireless Sensor Networks Enabling Platforms Ecological Monitoring Example Applications of WSNs in Ecological Systems Great Duck Island PODS - A remote ecological microsensor network Monitoring rice plants at LSU Acquiring Data from Sensor Networks Routing Protocols Data-Centric Routing Protocols Directed diffusion SPIN Location-Based Protocols Geography and energy aware routing Buddy Load Sharing Routing Protocol Summary See also Further Reading X Xenobiotic (Pesticides, PCB, Dioxins) Cycles Introduction Evaluation of POP Deposition Spatial Pattern of PCDD/Fs Contents in Various Environmental Compartments POP Transport in the Northern Hemisphere Exposure Pathways of Dioxins and Dioxin-Like PCBs to Human General Description of Dioxins Potential for Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Persistence in water, soil, and sediment Bioaccumulation Monitoring Pathways of LRTAP-Derived Human Exposure Significant sources and magnitude of human exposure Exposure levels in adults Exposure levels in children (including prenatal exposure) Potential for high-exposure situations Health effects in humans Critical outcomes and existing reference values Summary See also Further Reading Relevant Website Appendix – Useful Tables of Ecological Properties Periodic Table List of Contributors Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z