Advances in Surgical and Medical Specialties

Description

The pace and sophistication of advances in medicine in the past two decades have been truly breathtaking. This has necessitated a growing need for comprehensive references that highlight the current issues in specific sectors of medicine. Keeping this in mind, each volume in the Current Issues in Medicine series is a stand‐alone text that provides a broad survey of various critical topics in a focused area of medicine—all accomplished in a user-friendly yet interconnected format. However, unlike other series on medicine or medical texts, this series focuses on current trends, perspectives, and issues in medicine that are central to healthcare delivery in the 21st century. Medical practitioners today continue to improve upon techniques and technologies to provide procedures for patients that are safer, faster, less invasive, and more accurate —a direct consequence of advances in technological breakthroughs from a variety of medical and engineering fields. In order to render modern patient care, it is imperative that surgeons and medical practitioners stay current with these latest advances in their respective specialties. Given this backdrop, the specific topics covered in this volume and the expertise of the contributing authors accurately reflect the rapidly evolving areas within surgical and medical specialties. While recognising how expansive and multifaceted medicine is, Advances in Surgical and Medical Specialties addresses crucial recent advances in surgical and medical specialties, intergrating the knowledge and experience of experts from academia and practicing surgeons. The multidisciplinary approach reflected here makes this volume a valuable reference resource for medical practictioners, medical students, nurses, fellows, residents, undergraduate and graduate students, educators, venture capitalists, policymakers, and biomedical researchers. A wide audience will benefit from having this volume on their bookshelf: health care systems, the pharmaceutical industry, academia, and government. Cover Half Title Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Dedication The Editor Table of Contents Corresponding Authors Note from the Series Editor Chapter 1: Surgical and Medical Specialties: A Journey in Pictures Chapter 2: Lymph Nodes—The Neglected Battlefield in Tuberculosis 2.1: Introduction 2.2: Concluding Remarks 2.3: Methods Chapter 3: Chronic Kidney Disease in the United States, 2021 3.1: CKD Is Common Among US Adults 3.2: CKD by Age, Sex, and Race/Ethnicity 3.3: CKD Risk Factors 3.4: Ways to Prevent CKD 3.5: Treatment to Lower Blood Pressure 3.6: Testing and Treatment: Find It Early, Treat It Early 3.7: CKD Related Health Problems 3.8: People with CKD Can Lower Their Risk for Kidney Failure Chapter 4: Combatting Sepsis: A Public Health Perspective 4.1: National Trends in Sepsis Burden 4.2: Comprehensive Sepsis Prevention Framework 4.3: Building Partnerships and Increasing Awareness 4.4: Future Public Health Opportunities and Challenges Chapter 5: Hypertension and Atrial Fibrillation: Closing a Virtuous Circle Chapter 6: Cardiovascular Events after Community-Acquired Pneumonia: A Global Perspective with Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies 6.1: Introduction 6.2: Materials and Methods 6.3: Results 6.4: Discussion 6.5: Future Directions Chapter 7: Risk Factors for Recurrent Arterial Ischemic Stroke in Children and Young Adults 7.1: Introduction 7.2: Review Methodology 7.3: Prevalence of AIS Recurrence 7.4: Risk Factors for Recurrent AIS in a Pediatric Population 7.5: Risk Factors for Recurrent AIS in Young Adults 7.6: Secondary Prevention of AIS 7.7: Conclusions Chapter 8: Cellular Mechanisms of Human Atherogenesis: Focus on Chronification of Inflammation and Mitochondrial Mutations 8.1: Introduction 8.2: Cellular Mechanisms of Atherogenesis 8.3: Variants of the Nuclear Genome Associated with Atherosclerosis 8.4: Variants of Mitochondrial Genome Associated with Atherosclerosis 8.5: Role of Mitochondrial Mutations in Cellular Mechanism of Atherosclerosis; Chronification of Inflamation 8.6: Conclusions Chapter 9: The Microbiota of the Human Gut and Cardiometabolic Health 9.1: Introduction 9.2: The Microbiome 9.3: Major Metabolic Contributors to Microbiome Profile Identity 9.4: Dysbiosis and the Development of T2DM 9.5: Gut Microbiota and CVD 9.6: Concluding Remarks Chapter 10: Pharmaceutical Strategies for Reducing LDL-C and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease 10.1: Introduction 10.2: The Importance of Potency in Statin Monotherapy 10.3: Alternative Strategies to Achieve LDL-C Goal 10.4: PCSK9, a New Therapeutic Target 10.5: Conclusion Chapter 11: Atherogenic Markers in Predicting Cardiovascular Risk and Targeting Residual Cardiovascular Risk 11.1: Introduction 11.2: Markers of Atherogenic Risk 11.3: Residual Cardiovascular Risk 11.4: Conclusions Chapter 12: The Continuous Quest for More Effective and Safer Thromboprophylaxis Protocols 12.1: Thrombosis: A Preventable Healthcare Burden 12.2: Implementation Strategies and Risk Stratification 12.3: Prophylaxis Options with Comparison of Their Eficacy and Risks 12.4: Screening Methods and Secondary Prophylaxis 12.5: New Horizons: Emerging Prophylaxis Methods, Screening Strategies and Treatment Policies 12.6: Conclusion Chapter 13: Wound Healing: Cellular Mechanisms and Pathological Outcomes 13.1: Introduction 13.2: Cellular Aspects of Acute Wound Repair 13.3: When Healing Fails—Factors Influencing Chronic Wound Healing 13.4: Translational Techniques to Enhance Clinical Understanding of Wounds 13.5: Current Therapies and Future Opportunities 13.6: Conclusions Chapter 14: Advances in Cervical Cancer Prevention: Efficacy, Effectiveness, Elimination? 14.1: Evolution of Human Papilloma Virus Vaccination 14.2: Prospects for Cervical Cancer Elimination 14.3: Opportunities and Challenges Posed by Resource Levels 14.4: Cervical Screening in the Presence of HPV Vaccination 14.5 : Future Perspectives Chapter 15: Molecular Classification of Breast Cancer: A Retrospective Cohort Study 15.1: Introduction 15.2: Materials and Methods 15.3: Results 15.4: Discussion 15.5: Conclusion Chapter 16: Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma: From Biology to Therapy 16.1: Introduction 16.2: Molecular Basis of CSCC 16.3: Treatment of CSCC 16.4: Pharmacologically Induced Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma 16.5: Conclusions Chapter 17: Brain and Testis: More Alike Than Previously Thought? 17.1: Introduction 17.2: Brain and Testis 17.3: Neuron and Sperm 17.4: Concluding Remarks Chapter 18: Myomatous Erythrocytosis Syndrome: A Case Series 18.1: Introduction 18.2: Results 18.3: Discussion 18.4: Conclusions Chapter 19: Vascular Involvements in Cholangiocarcinoma: Tips and Tricks 19.1: Introduction 19.2: Materials and Methods 19.3: Intrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma with Vascular Involvement 19.4: Perihilar Cholangiocarcinoma with Vascular Involvement 19.5: Conclusions Chapter 20: Rehabilitation for People Living with Dementia: A Practical Framework of Positive Support 20.1: Why Is Rehabilitation Relevant? 20.2: How Can Cognitive Rehabilitation Benefit People with Dementia and Carers? 20.3: Where Do Other Nonpharmacological Interventions Fit In? 20.4: How Could Services Adopt a Rehabilitation Model? 20.5: Why Should We Acknowledge the Right to Rehabilitation? Chapter 21: Are Dementia with Lewy Bodies and Parkinson’s Disease Dementia the Same Disease? 21.1: Background 21.2: Conclusions 21.3: Future Perspectives Chapter 22: Regenerative Medicine: Could Parkinson’s Be the First Neurodegenerative Disease to Be Cured? 22.1: Multiplication and Differentiation of NSCs 22.2: Production, Transplantation and Characterization of Precursor DOP Aminergic Neurons 22.3: Rejection of Transplanted Cells 22.4: From Bench to Bed 22.5: Future Perspective Chapter 23: Changes in the Functional Brain Network of Children Undergoing Repeated Epilepsy Surgery: An EEG Source Connectivity Study 23.1: Introduction 23.2: Materials and Methods 23.3: Results 23.4: Discussion 23.5: Conclusions Chapter 24: Blood–Brain Barrier Disruption in Atrial Fibrillation: A Potential Contributor to the Increased Risk of Dementia and Worsening of Stroke Outcomes 24.1: Introduction 24.2: The Structure and Function of the Blood–Brain Barrier 24.3: Mechanisms of Blood–Brain Barrier Disruption 24.4: Effects of Altered Cerebral Blood Flow on the Blood–Brain Barrier 24.5: Disrupted Peripheral and Cerebral Blood Flow in Atrial Fibrillation 24.6: What Are the Underlying Mechanisms that Increase the Risk of Stroke and Dementia in trial Fibrillation? 24.7: Concluding Remarks Chapter 25: Trauma-Induced Coagulopathy: From Pathophysiology to Outcomes—Overview of an Emerging Medical Problem 25.1: Introduction 25.2: Definition 25.3: Pathophysiology 25.4: Specials Clinical Forms of TIC 25.5: Diagnosis 25.6: Outcomes 25.7: Hints for Therapy 25.8: Management of Patients with Severe Trauma in an ER Chapter 26: Advances in Fractures and Dislocations of the Hip Joint 26.1: Hip Fractures 26.2: Traumatic Dislocations of the Hip Joint Chapter 27: Predicting Scoliosis Progression: A Challenge for Researchers and Clinicians Chapter 28: Prosthetic and Mechanical Parameters of the Facial Bone under the Load of Different Dental Implant Shapes: A Parametric Study 28.1: Introduction 28.2: Results 28.3: Discussion 28.4: Materials and Methods 28.5: Conclusions Chapter 29: Circulating Arsenic Is Associated with Long-Term Risk of Graft Failure in Kidney Transplant Recipients: A Prospective Cohort Study 29.1: Introduction 29.2: Methods 29.3: Results 29.4: Discussion 29.5: Conclusions Chapter 30: Successful Aging and Chronic Osteoarthritis 30.1: Introduction 30.2: Methods 30.3: Results 30.4: Discussion 30.5: Conclusions 30.6: Future Research and Practical Challenges Chapter 31: Radiographic Analysis on the Distortion of the Anatomy of First Metatarsal Head in Dorsoplantar Projection 31.1: Introduction 31.2: Material and Methods 31.3: Results 31.4: Discussion 31.5: Conclusions Chapter 32: Clinical Aspects and Current Therapeutic Approaches for Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva 32.1: Introduction 32.2: Epidemiology 32.3: Pathophysiology 32.4: Natural Clinical Course 32.5: Skeletal Malformations 32.6: Managements and Treatments 32.7: On-Going Clinical Trials for FOP 32.8: Conclusions Chapter 33: Comparison and Lessons Learned from Neglected Tropical Diseases and Tuberculosis 33.1: Introduction 33.2: Underlying Burden of Disease 33.3: Influence of Poverty and Development 33.4: Neglect 33.5: Conclusions Chapter 34: Current Issues in Antibiotic Antimicrobial Resistance 34.1: About Antibiotic Resistance 34.2: Antibiotic Resistance Threatens Everyone 34.3: Brief History of Resistance and Antibiotics 34.4: Fighting Antibiotic Resistance 34.5: Antibiotic Resistance: 5 Things to Know 34.6: Antibiotic-Resistant Infections Threaten Modern Medicine 34.7: Examples of How Antibiotic Resistance Affects Humans, Animals and the Environment 34.8: How Antibiotic Resistance Moves Directly Germ to Germ 34.9: Protect People and Animals, Combat Antibiotic Resistance: Actions for Livestock and Poultry Producers Chapter 35: Ending AIDS as a Public Health Threat by 2030: Time to Reset Targets for 2025 35.1: Introduction 35.2: The Process and Structures 35.3: Addressing the Key Challenges, Concerns, and Priorities 35.4: Conclusions Chapter 36: 9 Questions to Help Make Sense of Health Research Chapter 37: Transdisciplinary Research and Clinical Priorities for Better Health 37.1: Lifestyle and Prevention of Chronic Diseases 37.2: Intergenerational and Life Course Consequences of Preconception and in utero Health 37.3: Ecological Footprint of Modern Medical Systems 37.4: Intensive Animal Farming and Pollution 37.5: Benefits of Investing in Preventive Science, Education, and Medicine 37.6: Conclusions and Future Directions Chapter 38: Current Issues about Health News Stories 38.1: When Clinical Research is in the News 38.2: Health Approaches in the News 38.3: Information Missing from Health Stories 38.4: What’s Missing: Important Details! 38.5: What’s Missing: Information on Side Effects! 38.6: What’s Missing: The Full Story! 38.7: What’s Missing: Humans! 38.8: Conflicting Health News 38.9: Accuracy in the Media 38.10: What the Media Says about Complementary Health Approaches 38.11: Is It Real Online News? Or Just Advertising? 38.12: Checklist for Understanding Health News Stories 38.13: Remember 38.14: Supplementary Information Chapter 39: Complementary, Alternative, or Integrative Health: What’s in a Name? 39.1: Complementary versus Alternative 39.2: Integrative Health 39.3: Complementary Health Approaches Chapter 40: Current Issues in Complementary and Integrative Health 40.1: 4 Things to Know about Dietary Supplements for Eye Conditions 40.2: 5 Things to Know about Omega-3s for Heart Disease 40.3: 6 Tips: How Herbs Can Interact with Medicines 40.4: 7 Tips: What You Need to Know about Natural Products for Musculoskeletal Inflammtion 40.5: 6 Things You Should Know: The Science of Chronic Pain and Complementary Health Practices 40.6: 4 Tips: Mind and Body Practices for Common Aging-Related Conditions 40.7: 6 Things You Need to Know about Cancer and Complementary Health Approaches 40.8: 5 Things to Know about Complementary Health Practices for Cognitive Function, Dementia, and Alzheimer’s Disease 40.9: 4 Tips: Asthma and Complementary Health Practices 40.10: 10 Things to Know about the Science of Health 40.11: 5 Things to Know about Relaxation Techniques for Stress 40.12: 7 Things to Know about Complementary Approaches for Fibromyalgia 40.13: 5 Tips: Natural Products for the Flu and Colds: What Does the Science Say? 40.14: 5 Things You Should Know about Yoga 40.15: 5 Things to Know about Chronic Low-Back Pain and Complementary Health Practices 40.16: 4 Things to Know about Spinal Manipulation for Low-Back Pain 40.17: 7 Things to Know about Complementary Health Approaches for Autism Spectrum Disorder 40.18: 4 Tips: Start Talking with Your Health Care Providers about Complementary Health Approaches 40.19: 7 Things to Know about Omega-3 Fatty Acids 40.20: 5 Tips: Natural Products Used for Common Aging-Related Conditions 40.21: 6 Things You Should Know about Dietary Supplements for Osteoarthritis 40.22: 7 Tips: Know the Facts about Supplements Marketed for Weight Loss 40.23: 5 Things to Know about Sleep Disorders and Complementary Health Approaches 40.24: 6 Things to Know about Complementary Health Approaches for Seasonal Affective Disorder 40.25: 5 Tips: What Consumers Need to Know about Dietary Supplements 40.26: 5 Things to Know about St. John’s Wort and Depression 40.27: 6 Things to Know about Massage Therapy for Health Purposes 40.28: 7 Things to Know about Complementary Health Approaches for ADHD 40.29: 6 Things to Know about Type 2 Diabetes and Dietary Supplements 40.30: 5 Tips: What You Should Know about Complementary Health Approaches for BPH 40.31: 8 Things to Know about Mind and Body Approaches for Health Problems Facing Military Personnel and Veterans 40.32: 5 Tips: What You Should Know about Tai Chi for Health 40.33: 6 Things to Know about Complementary Health Approaches for Seasonal Allergy Relief 40.34: 7 Tips: What You Should Know about Complementary Health Approaches for Multiple Sclerosis 40.35: 7 Things to Know about Complementary Health Approaches for Anxiety 40.36: 6 Tips: What You Need to Know about Complementary Health Approaches for Skin Conditions 40.37: 5 Things to Know about Complementary Health Approaches for Parkinson’s Disease 40.38: 5 Myths about Popular Natural Products Marketed for Disease Prevention and Wellness 40.39: 7 Things to Know about Mind and Body Practices for Children and Teens 40.40: 6 Things to Know about Travel-Related Ailments and Complementary Health Approaches 40.41: 6 Tips: IBS and Complementary Health Practices 40.42: 5 Things You Should Know about Dietary Supplements for Hepatitis C 40.43: 5 Things to Know about Probiotics 40.44: 5 Things to Know about Mind and Body Approaches for Substance Use Disorders 40.45: 4 Things to Know about Menopausal Symptoms and Complementary Health Practices 40.46: 6 Things to Know When Selecting a Complementary Health Practitioner 40.47: 5 Tips: What You Should Know about Popular Herbs 40.48: 8 Things to Know about Meditation for Health 40.49: 6 Things to Know about Complementary Health Approaches for Quitting Smoking 40.50: 5 Tips: What You Should Know about High Blood Cholesterol 40.51: 8 Things to Know about Depression and Complementary Health Approaches 40.52: 10 Things to Know about Dietary Supplements for Children and Teens 40.53: 4 Things To Know About Menopausal Symptoms and Complementary Health Practices 40.54: Ayurvedic Medicine: In Depth 40.55: Terms Related to Complementary and Integrative Health Chapter 41: Skin Conditions and Complementary Health Approaches: What the Science Says 41.1: Atopic Dermatitis 41.2: Psoriasis 41.3: Acne 41.4: Impetigo 41.5: Rosacea Chapter 42: Nutrition and Health across the Lifespan: Guidelines and Recommendations 42.1: Guideline 1: Follow a Healthy Dietary Pattern at Every Life Stage 42.2: Guideline 2: Customize and Enjoy Food and Beverage Choices to Reflect Personal Preferences, Cultural Traditions, and Budgetary Considerations 42.3: Guideline 3: Focus on Meeting Food Group Needs With Nutrient-Dense Foods and Beverages, and Stay Within Calorie Limits 42.4: Guideline 4: Limit Foods and Beverages Higher in Added Sugars, Saturated Fat, and Sodium, and Limit Alcoholic Beverages 42.5: Support Healthy Dietary Patterns for All Americans Chapter 43: Using Dietary Supplements Wisely 43.1: What’s the Bottom Line? 43.2: What Are Dietary Supplements? 43.3: What Are Herbal Supplements? 43.4: Dietary Supplement Use in the United States 43.5: Federal Regulation of Dietary Supplements 43.6: What the Science Says about the Effectiveness of Dietary Supplements 43.7: What the Science Says about the Safety and Side Effects of Dietary Supplements 43.8: Safety Considerations Chapter 44: Association of Genetic Liability to Smoking Initiation with e-Cigarette Use in Young Adults: A Cohort Study 44.1: Introduction 44.2: Results 44.3: Discussion Chapter 45: Current Issues in Vaccine Development 45.1: Vaccine Development: An Introductory Overview 45.2: How Vaccines Work 45.3: Vaccine Development 45.4: Improving Vaccine R&D 45.5: Technologies and Approaches for Vaccine R&D 45.6: Addressing Challenges Related to Vaccine R&D: Policy Options 45.7: Technologies and Approaches That May Enhance Vaccine Testing 45.8: Challenges Related to Vaccine Testing: Policy Options 45.9: Technologies and Approaches for Vaccine Manufacturing 45.10: Challenges Related to Vaccine Manufacturing: Policy Options 45.11: Vaccine Development: Economics and Role of Incentives 45.12: Economic Challenges to Vaccine Development: Policy Option Chapter 46: Cannabis Products Containing Delta-8 Tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-8 THC): Increased Availability and Reports of Adverse Events 46.1: Introduction 46.2: Background 46.3: Recommendations for the Public and Consumers 46.4: Recommendations for Public Health Departments and Poison Control Centers, Including Those in Locations Where Laws Only Permit Hemp Marketplaces 46.5: Recommendations for Retailers Selling Cannabis Products 46.6: Recommendations for Healthcare Providers 46.7: For More Information Chapter 47: Natural Doesn’t Necessarily Mean Safer, or Better Chapter 48: How Medications and Supplements Can Interact 48.1: Test Your Knowledge: Are These Statements True or False? 48.2: Talk With Your Health Care Providers 48.3: Some Supplements May Increase the Effects—and Side Effects—of Drugs 48.4: Some Supplements May Decrease the Effects of Drugs 48.5: More about St. John’s Wort 48.6: Interactions with Over-the-Counter (OTC) Drugs 48.7: When Drug-Supplement Interactions Are Especially Important 48.8: Drugs with a Narrow Therapeutic Range 48.9: If You’re Going to Have Surgery 48.10: Tips on Reading Supplement Labels 48.11: Here’s a Hint for Your Next Visit to a Health Care Provider Chapter 49: Antioxidants: Current Issues and Future Trends 49.1: Introduction 49.2: Key Points 49.3: About Free Radicals, Oxidative Stress, and Antioxidants 49.4: Use of Antioxidant Supplements in the United States 49.5: Safety 49.6: What the Science Says 49.7: If You Are Considering Antioxidant Supplements 49.8: NCCIH- and NIH-Funded Research 49.9: For More Information Chapter 50: Hearing Loss and Hearing Aids: Current Issues 50.1: What Is Hearing Loss? 50.2: What Noises Cause Hearing Loss? 50.3: How Does Loud Noise Cause Hearing Loss? 50.4: What Is Noise-Induced Hearing Loss? 50.5: How Can I Tell If I Have a Hearing Problem? 50.6: Who Can I Turn to for Help with My Hearing Loss? 50.7: Why Am I Losing My Hearing? 50.8: What Is an Audiogram (Hearing Test)? 50.9: What Treatments and Devices Can Help? 50.10: Hearing Aids: More Details 50.11: What Are Some Features for Hearing Aids? 50.12: Hearing Aids and How They Work 50.13: Are There Different Styles of Hearing Aids? 50.14: Are New Types of Aids Available? 50.15: What Is the Difference between Analog and Digital Hearing Aids? 50.16: Which Hearing Aid Will Work Best for Me? 50.17: How Do I Get a Hearing Evaluation before Getting Hearing Aids? 50.18: What Is the Difference between Prescription and Over-the-Counter (OTC) Hearing Aids? 50.19: Who Are OTC Hearing Aids for? 50.20: What Questions Should I Ask before Buying a Hearing Aid? 50.21: How Can I Adjust to My Hearing Aid? 50.22: How Can I Care for My Hearing Aid? 50.23: Can I Obtain Financial Assistance for a Hearing Aid? 50.24: Hearing Aids vs. Personal Sound Amplification Products Chapter 51: Bacterial Evolution during Human Infection: Adapt and Live or Adapt and Die 51.1: Introduction 51.2: Conclusions Chapter 52: Roadblocks in Chagas Disease Care in Endemic and Nonendemic Countries: Argentina, Colombia, Spain, and the United States. The NET-Heart Project 52.1: Introduction 52.2: Methods 52.3: Results 52.4: Discussion 52.5: Conclusions Chapter 53: Pathogens Infecting the Central Nervous System Chapter 54: Current Issues in Vaccines 54.1: History of Vaccines 54.2: Common Ingredients in U.S. Licensed Vaccines 54.3: Understanding the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System 54.4: Science Summary: CDC Studies on Thimerosal in Vaccines 54.5: Pregnancy and Vaccination 54.6: Understanding Thimerosal, Mercury, and Vaccine Safety 54.7: 2022 Recommended Immunizations for Children from Birth through 6 Years Old 54.8: 2022 Recommended Immunizations for Children 7–18 Years 54.9:Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older Chapter 55: What Are Embryonic Stem Cells and How Can They Help Us? 55.1: It All Begins in Fertilization, When the Sperm Meets the Egg 55.2: Cloning 55.3: Therapeutic Cloning 55.4: Reprogramming 55.5: Therapy? 55.6: Addendum by the Series Editor, Dr. Raj Bawa: The Future of Embryonic Stem Cells Chapter 56: The Rise and Rise of Mitochondrial DNA Mutations 56.1: Evolutionary Aspects of Mitochondrial Genetics 56.2: Clonal Expansion of mtDNA Mutations 56.3: Population Dynamics of mtDNA Point Mutations 56.4: Population Dynamics of mtDNA Deletions 56.5: Important Challenges and Unanswered Questions 56.6: Modelling Clonal Expansion 56.7: Conclusion and Future Perspectives Chapter 57: Hallmarks of Cancer—the New Testament 57.1: A Historical Perspective on Cancer 57.2: Hallmarks of Cancer 57.3: New Hallmark 1: Dedifferentiation and Transdifferentiation 57.4: New Hallmark 2: Epigenetic Dysregulation 57.5: New Hallmark 3: Altered Microbiome 57.6: New Hallmark 4: Altered Neuronal Signalling 57.7: Conclusion Chapter 58: Adipose Tissue in Health and Disease 58.1: Introduction 58.2: Adipose Tissue Expansion and Development 58.3: Inflammation 58.4: Location of Lipid Storage 58.5: Adipose Tissue Lipolysis and Insulin Resistance 58.6: Endocrine Functions within Adipose Tissue 58.7: Emerging Approaches to Combat Adipose Tissue-Derived Metabolic Dysfunction 58.8: Concluding Remarks Chapter 59: Viral Pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Male Reproductive Health 59.1: Introduction 59.2: SARS-CoV-2: History, Origin and Transmission 59.3: Possible Mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 Invasion into Host Cells and Immune Pattern of Infection 59.4: Effect on the Male Reproductive System 59.5: SARS-CoV-2 and Male Fertility 59.6: Gender-Based Susceptibility 59.7: Conclusion 59.8; Future Perspectives Chapter 60: Elevated CO2 Modulates Airway Contractility 60.1: Introduction 60.2: Hypercapnia-Induced Bronchoconstriction 60.3: Respiratory Acidosis-Related Bronchodilation 60.4: Effect of Hypocapnia on Airway Contractility 60.5: Conclusion Index