Ecological and Health Effects of Building Materials

Description

This book deals with the present adverse effects of using precarious building materials on the ecology and human health. Also, the detailed discussions on the novel and greener construction materials and their utilization as an alternative to the conventional harmful existing methods and materials are also presented in the subsequent chapters. This book helps to fill the research gaps in the existing prior-art knowledge in the field of sustainable construction and green building materials and methods giving due importance to ecology and health, specifically to the fields of sustainable structural engineering, sustainable geotechnical engineering, sustainable road engineering, etc. This book helps in achieving a sustainable environment through possible adoption of innovative and ecological construction practices. Hence, this book acts as a practical workbook, mainly for the academicians and practicing engineers who are willing to work toward the consecrated building industry. It is a well-established fact that the constructions of the engineering structures consume more and more earth resources than any other human activities in the world. In addition, the construction-related activities will produce several million tons of greenhouse gases, toxic emissions, water pollutants, and solid wastes. This creates a huge impact on environment and causes severe health issues on humans and animals. It is thus important to create an eco-friendly construction environment which can satisfy the ecological and health requirements. Foreword Preface Contents About the Editors 1 Potentially Toxic Construction Materials: An Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 1.3 Phthalates 1.4 Organic Compounds 1.4.1 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 1.4.2 Semi-volatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs) 1.5 Heavy Metals 1.5.1 Asbestos 1.5.2 Lead 1.5.3 Cadmium 1.5.4 Mercury 1.5.5 Silica 1.6 Other Sources of Toxic Materials 1.6.1 Wood Treatment Chemicals 1.6.2 Bisphenol A 1.6.3 Materials Releasing Toxic Fumes on Fire 1.6.4 Formaldehyde 1.6.5 Fiberglass 1.7 Conclusion References 2 Atmospheric Emissions from Construction Sector 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Various Construction Activities Contributing to Atmospheric Pollution 2.2.1 Use of Onsite Vehicles and Plants 2.2.2 Building Demolition and Land Clearing 2.2.3 Chemicals 2.2.4 PM10 2.3 Issues and Challenges 2.4 The Importance of Building Green 2.5 Impacts in General 2.6 Consequences of Atmospheric Pollution from Construction Sector 2.6.1 Construction Workers 2.6.2 Residents of Locality 2.6.3 Environmental Effects 2.7 Prevention of Atmospheric Pollution from Construction Sector 2.7.1 Pollution Prevention Strategies 2.7.2 Mitigating Atmospheric Pollution by Cause 2.8 Stakeholder Roles in Reduction of Atmospheric Pollution 2.8.1 General Public 2.8.2 Business 2.8.3 Government 2.9 Conclusion References 3 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE), Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC), Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CSPE), Polychloroprene Rubber (CR)—Chemistry, Applications and Ecological Impacts—I 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Types of Polymers 3.3 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 3.3.1 Applications 3.3.2 Ecological Impacts 3.4 Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE) 3.4.1 Applications 3.4.2 Ecological Impacts 3.5 Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC) 3.5.1 Applications 3.5.2 Ecological Impacts 3.6 Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CSPE) 3.6.1 Applications 3.6.2 Ecological Impacts 3.7 Polychloroprene Rubber (CR) 3.7.1 Applications 3.7.2 Ecological Impacts References 4 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE), Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC), Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CSPE), Polychloroprene Rubber (CR)—Chemistry, Applications and Ecological Impacts—II 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Chemistry, Applications and Ecological Impacts of Plastic Materials 4.2.1 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 4.2.2 Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE) 4.2.3 Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC) 4.2.4 Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CSPE) 4.2.5 Polychloroprene Rubber (CR) 4.3 Control Agents and Other Non-Toxic Alternative Compounds 4.4 Conclusion References 5 Volatile Organic Compounds Emission from Building Sector and Its Adverse Effects on Human Health 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Sources of VOCs in Building Sectors 5.3 General Classification of VOCs 5.3.1 Formaldehyde (H-CHO) 5.3.2 Chlorinated Aromatic Compounds 5.3.3 Non-chlorinated Aromatic Compounds 5.3.4 Chlorinated Aliphatic Compounds 5.4 Nature and Types of VOCs 5.5 Health Effects 5.5.1 Carcinogenic Effects 5.5.2 Non-carcinogenic Effects 5.6 Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) 5.7 Exposure of VOCs to Humans 5.7.1 Steps to Reduce Exposure by EPA (2017) 5.8 Indoor Exposure Guidelines 5.9 Conclusion and Solution References 6 Comprehensive Analysis of Research Trends in Volatile Organic Compounds Emitted from Building Materials: A Bibliometric Analysis 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Methods 6.2.1 Search Strategy 6.2.2 Data Analysis 6.3 Results and Discussion 6.3.1 Trends in Publication 6.3.2 Most Contributing Countries and Their Collaborations 6.3.3 Most Relevant Institutions 6.3.4 Most Contributing Authors 6.3.5 Most Productive Journals 6.3.6 Most Cited Documents 6.3.7 Keyword Analysis 6.4 Conclusion References 7 Heavy Metal Contamination from Construction Materials 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Lead 7.2.1 Lead Piping and Water Contamination 7.2.2 Lead Toxicity 7.2.3 Replacement of Lead Pipes 7.3 Cadmium 7.3.1 Cadmium History and Application 7.3.2 Chemical Forms and Properties of Cd 7.3.3 Cadmium Toxicity 7.3.4 Biomonitoring of Cadmium 7.4 Chromium 7.4.1 Chromium History and Application 7.4.2 Chemical Form and Properties of Chromium 7.4.3 Chromium Toxicity 7.4.4 Biomonitoring of Chromium 7.5 Mercury 7.5.1 Mercury History and Application 7.5.2 Chemical Form and Properties of Mercury 7.5.3 Mercurial Toxicity 7.5.4 Biomonitoring of Mercury 7.6 Remedial Actions 7.7 Recommendations 7.7.1 New Buildings 7.7.2 Old Building References 8 Nanoparticles in Construction Industry and Their Toxicity 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Importance of Nanomaterials in Construction 8.3 Nanomaterials in Construction 8.3.1 Concrete and Cement 8.3.2 Asphalt 8.3.3 Bricks 8.3.4 Mortar 8.3.5 Steel 8.4 Environmental Release and Exposure Scenarios 8.5 Toxicity of Nanomaterials 8.6 Risk Assessment and Analysis 8.7 Critical Knowledge Gaps and Research Needs 8.8 Conclusions References 9 Application of Nanoparticles in Construction Industries and Their Toxicity 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Size Dependent Properties 9.3 Nanoparticles in Construction Industry and Application 9.3.1 Nanoparticles 9.3.2 Applications 9.4 Route of Nanoparticle Exposure 9.4.1 Manufacturing Process 9.4.2 Construction Site 9.4.3 Demolition 9.4.4 Natural Phenomena 9.5 Toxicity 9.6 Environmental Implications 9.7 Health Implications 9.8 Conclusion References 10 Potential Environmental Impacts of Nanoparticles Used in Construction Industry 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Synthesis of Nanoparticles 10.2.1 Top-Down Approach 10.2.2 Bottom-up Approach 10.3 Applications of Nanoparticles 10.3.1 Use of Various Nanoparticles in Construction Area 10.4 Health Effects of Nanoparticles 10.4.1 Effect of Nanoparticles on Microorganisms 10.4.2 Effect of Nanoparticles on Plants 10.4.3 Effect on Animals and Humans 10.5 Conclusion References 11 Thermal Insulation of Building Envelope for Ecological Conservation 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Heat Exchange Process 11.1.2 Periodic Heat Flow in Building Elements 11.1.3 Building Envelope 11.2 Role of Building Enclosures, Openings and Materials in Thermal Environment 11.2.1 Building Configuration 11.2.2 Building Components 11.3 Sustainable and Energy Efficient Thermal Comfort Techniques 11.3.1 Passive Heating 11.3.2 Passive Cooling 11.4 Sustainable Building Materials 11.4.1 Embodied Energy of Building Materials 11.4.2 Alternative Building Materials 11.5 Conclusion and Recommendation References 12 Soil Contamination from Construction Projects 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Soil and Its Ecological Importance 12.3 Construction Projects and Construction Materials: Extraction, Manufacture, and Transport 12.3.1 Transportation 12.3.2 Energy Requirements 12.4 Wastes Generated During Construction and Demolition and Their Disposal 12.5 Disposal of C and D Wastes 12.6 Effect of Construction Activities on Landscape and Soil Environment 12.6.1 Impact of Construction Activities on the Landscape 12.6.2 Impact of Construction on Soil Environment 12.6.3 Formation of Urban Soil 12.7 Effect of Construction on Soil pH, Texture, and Nutrients 12.7.1 Physical Degradation of Soil Due to Constructed Spaces 12.7.2 Impact of Construction Activities on Water in the Urban Environment 12.7.3 Impact of the Urban Environment on Soil Microorganisms 12.7.4 Heavy Metals and Organic Pollutants in Urban Soils 12.7.5 Impact of Construction and Demolition Waste on the Soil During Disposal 12.7.6 Risk Assessment 12.8 Effect of Construction Activities on Urban Agriculture and Health Risks Due to Contaminated Soil 12.8.1 Effect of Dust and Heavy Metals on Plants 12.8.2 Indirect Health Risk from Crops Cultivated in Contaminated Soil 12.8.3 Daily Intake of Metals (DIM) and Health Index Risk (HRI) 12.8.4 Potential Health Risks from Direct Contact 12.8.5 Effect of HMs on Human Beings 12.9 Mitigation Measures for Construction and Demolition Waste Disposal 12.9.1 Recycling of C and D Waste 12.10 Mitigation Measures for Contaminated Soil 12.11 Conclusion References 13 Water Pollution from Construction Industry: An Introduction 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Water Pollution at Construction Industries 13.3 Sources and Characteristics of Water Pollution from Construction Industry 13.3.1 Physical Characteristics 13.3.2 Chemical Characteristics 13.3.3 Biological Characteristics 13.4 Environmental and Health Effect of Construction Waste 13.5 Control of Water Pollution from Construction Sites 13.6 Strategy for Sustainable Development of Construction Industry 13.7 Reduce, Reuse and Recycle of Construction and Demolition of Wastes 13.8 Conclusion References 14 Design and Development of Improved Methods of Curing of Bricks During Manufacturing Process and Construction Work to Save Water, Minimize Pollution and Human Effort 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Experimental Setups 14.2.1 Curing of Bricks During Their Manufacturing Process 14.2.2 Curing of Bricks During Construction Work 14.3 Results and Discussion 14.3.1 Method for Curing of Bricks During Their Manufacturing Process 14.3.2 Method for Curing of Bricks After Constructional Work 14.4 Conclusions 14.4.1 Method of Curing of Bricks During Their Manufacturing Process 14.4.2 Method of Curing of Bricks After Constructional Work References 15 Embodied Carbon in Construction and Its Ecological Implications 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Sources of Carbon Emissions in Construction 15.3 Embodied Carbon Hotspots 15.4 Estimation of Carbon Emissions 15.5 Mitigation Strategies 15.5.1 Utilization of Low-Carbon Materials 15.5.2 Better Architecture 15.5.3 Local Procuring of Materials and Minimizing Transport 15.5.4 Material Reuse and Recycling 15.5.5 Refurbishment 15.5.6 Utilization of Prefabricated Elements 15.5.7 Law Enforcement 15.6 Ecological Implications 15.7 Conclusion References 16 Human Health Hazards Associated with Asbestos in Building Materials 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Classification of Asbestos Minerals 16.3 Toxicity and Health Effects of Asbestos 16.4 The Use of Asbestos in Building Materials 16.5 The Actual Global Asbestos Issue 16.6 Asbestos Reclamation, Disposal and Recycling 16.7 Substitutes of Asbestos in Building Materials 16.8 Conclusions References 17 Development of Eco-efficient Geopolymer Masonry for Sustainability 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Bricks and Blocks 17.2.1 Tests on Geopolymer Masonry Units 17.3 Geopolymer Masonry Prism 17.3.1 Testing of Brick Prisms 17.3.2 Testing of Geopolymer Solid Block Prisms 17.4 Geopolymer Hollow Block Prisms (GPHB) 17.4.1 Testing of Geopolymer Hollow Block Prisms 17.5 Wallettes 17.5.1 Testing of Geopolymer Bricks Wallettes 17.5.2 Solid Block Wallets 17.5.3 Testing of Geopolymer Soil Block Wallets 17.5.4 Geopolymer Hollow Block Wallettes 17.5.5 Testing of Geopolymer Hollow Block Wallettes 17.6 Conclusions References 18 Utilization of Waste Brick Powder for Manufacturing Green Bricks and Cementitious Materials 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Clayey Bricks 18.2.1 Clay 18.2.2 Waste Brick Powder 18.3 Use of WBP for Bricks 18.4 Use of WBP for Cementitious Composites 18.5 Conclusions References 19 Health Impacts of Construction Workers: A Short Introduction 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Work-Related Illnesses and Injuries 19.3 Musculoskeletal Ailments as the Major Occupational Disorders 19.4 Respiratory Diseases 19.5 Hearing Problems 19.6 Skin Diseases 19.7 Psychological Diseases 19.8 Recommendations References 20 The Benefits of Eco-efficient Plasters for Occupant’s Health—A Case Study 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Materials, Mortars Composition and Test Methods 20.2.1 Materials and Mortars Composition 20.2.2 Mortars Characterization and Preparation, Characterization in Raw and Specimen Obtention 20.2.3 Test Methods 20.3 Results and Discussion 20.3.1 Dry Bulk Density and Linear Shrinkage 20.3.2 Mechanical Properties 20.3.3 Hygroscopic Properties 20.4 Conclusion References 21 Occupational Health Problems of Construction Workers 21.1 Introduction 21.1.1 An Unnoticed Issue 21.1.2 Workers Health Management by Integrated Approaches 21.2 Occupation and Health 21.3 Administrative/Organizational Issues and Work Design 21.4 Risk Factors in the Workplace 21.4.1 MSDs (Musculoskeletal Disorders) 21.4.2 Noise at the Workplace 21.4.3 Chemicals at the Workplace 21.4.4 Hazards at the Workplace Through Air 21.4.5 Emergent Hazards at the Workplace 21.4.6 Psychosocial Hazards at the Workplace 21.5 Occupational Health and Its Management 21.6 Construction Workers Health 21.6.1 Psychological Health 21.6.2 Resiliency 21.6.3 Suicide 21.7 Understanding Worker’s Health Based on the Behavioral Context 21.7.1 Environmental Approaches to Health 21.7.2 Interrelationship Among Work and Family 21.7.3 Masculine Working Culture 21.7.4 Ability to Work and Work-to-Life Fit 21.7.5 Health and Fitness to Work 21.7.6 Administrative Responses to Support Worker’s Health 21.8 Conclusions References 22 Impact of Construction Material on Environment 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Impact of Steel Industry on Environment 22.3 Impact of Concrete on Environment 22.4 Raw Material for Concrete Production 22.5 Environmental Impact of Manufacturing of Raw Material 22.6 Environmental Concerns Due to Construction Industry 22.7 Health Concerns Regarding Construction Material 22.8 Strategies to Mitigate the Environmental Impact of Steel and Concrete 22.8.1 Recycling of Steel 22.8.2 Reuse of Steel 22.8.3 Reuse and Recycling of Concrete 22.8.4 Selection of Material to Reduce Environmental Impact of Steel and Concrete 22.9 Conclusion References 23 Ecological Impacts of Land Conversion on Wildlife Conservation: A Case of Construction Sector in Tanzania 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Forms of Land Conversion in Protected Areas 23.3 Forces Behind Land Conversion in Protected Areas 23.4 Ecological Impacts of Construction Works on Wildlife Conservation 23.5 Conclusion References 24 Perception of Construction Workers on Psychophysical Health and Safety Issues: A Qualitative Investigation 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Methods 24.3 Results 24.3.1 Part I: Perceived Health—Physical 24.3.2 Part II: Perceived Health—Emotional 24.3.3 Part III: Perceived Health—Environmental 24.4 Implications and Suggestions 24.5 Conclusion References 25 Effect of Different Building Materials on Indoor Radon/Thoron and Associated Health Hazards 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Geology of the Study Area 25.3 Materials and Methods 25.3.1 Preliminary Survey of the Study Area 25.3.2 Categorization of Investigated Houses 25.3.3 Pin-Hole Based Dosimeter and Deposition Based Direct Progeny Sensors (DRPS/DTPS) 25.4 Results and Discussion 25.4.1 Distribution of Radionuclides 25.4.2 Correlation Among Gases and Their Progeny 25.4.3 Frequency Distribution of Radon, Thoron, and Their Progeny 25.4.4 Annual Effective Dose Due to Inhalation 25.4.5 Comparison of Results with Other Investigations of Nearby Regions 25.4.6 Seasonal Comparison of Results of Present Investigation 25.5 Conclusions References 26 Sustainable Techniques for Building Waste Disposal 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Sources and Causes of Building Material Waste 26.3 Impact of Building Material Waste 26.3.1 Impact on Environment 26.3.2 Impact on Public Health 26.3.3 Impact on Economy 26.4 Traditional Disposal Strategies for Building Material Waste 26.5 Sustainable Technologies for the Disposal of Building Material Waste 26.5.1 Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Recover (4R) Strategy 26.6 Building Material Waste Management: Global Best Practices and Plan 26.7 Conclusion References 27 Impact of Textile Product Emissions: Toxicological Considerations in Assessing Indoor Air Quality and Human Health 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Textile Processing 27.3 Indoor Air Quality and Health Issues 27.4 Flame Retardants 27.5 Trace Elements 27.6 Aromatic Amines 27.7 Quinoline, Bisphenols, Benzothiazoles and Benzotriazoles 27.8 Phthalates 27.9 Volatile Organic Compounds 27.10 Nano-Materials and Nanoparticles 27.11 Micro and Nano-Plastics 27.12 Conclusion and Recommendations References 28 Health Impacts of Building Materials on Construction Workers 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Occupational Health Hazards in the Building and Construction Industry 28.2.1 Emerging Technologies—Nanomaterials 28.2.2 Ecological Impact Attributed to Climate Change 28.2.3 Particles and Emissions in the Construction Sites and Its Effect on Workers 28.3 Emerging Occupational Diseases and Risk Factors for Construction Workers 28.3.1 Health Impacts of Construction Materials and Products on Workers 28.4 Legal Framework: Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) 28.5 Managing Occupational Risk of Construction Worker’s Health 28.5.1 The Utility of Implied Health and Safety Standard 28.5.2 Use of Personal Protective Equipment 28.5.3 Training and Development 28.6 Conclusion References 29 Bioconcrete: The Promising Prospect for Green Construction 29.1 Cement-Concrete 29.2 Biocement 29.3 Biomineralization/Bioprecipitation 29.3.1 BCM (Biologically Controlled Mineralization) 29.3.2 BIM (Biologically Induced Mineralization) 29.3.3 BMM (Biologically Mediated Mineralization) 29.4 MICP (Microbially Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation) 29.4.1 Ureolysis 29.4.2 Metabolic Transformation of Organic Compound-Heterotrophic Bacteria 29.4.3 Dissimilatory Nitrate Reduction 29.4.4 Dissimilatory Sulphate Reduction 29.4.5 Photosynthesis (Castro-Alanso et al. 2019) 29.5 Factors Influencing Performance of MICP 29.5.1 Energy Substrates 29.5.2 Urease Positive Bacteria 29.5.3 Geometric Compatibility of Bacteria 29.5.4 Bacterial Cell Concentration 29.5.5 Fixation and Distribution of Bacteria 29.5.6 Temperature 29.5.7 Reactant Concentration 29.5.8 pH 29.6 Limitations for MICP Derived Biocement-Bioconcrete 29.7 Potential Applications of Biocement/Bio Concrete 29.8 Future Perspectives 29.9 Conclusion References 30 Environmental Life Cycle Analysis of Residential Building Materials: A Case Study 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Application 30.3 Previous Comparison Studies for LCA of Residential Buildings 30.4 Materials and Methodology 30.4.1 Description of the Building Features 30.5 Application of LCA in Case Studies: Goal and Scope 30.6 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) 30.7 Results and Discussion [Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)] 30.8 Interpretation 30.9 Conclusion References Index