NEUROVASCULAR NEUROPSYCHOLOGY,

Description

Preface to the Second Edition Acknowledgment Contents Chapter 1: Historical Perspective 1.1 Early Civilizations and the Pre-Hippocratic Period 1.2 Greco-Roman Period 1.3 From the Medieval Period to the Realm of Neuroanatomists and Neuropathologists 1.4 The Eighteenth to Mid-Twentieth Century 1.5 The Twentieth Century: From Neuropathology to the Realm of Neuroradiology 1.6 The Pendulum at Rest 1.7 Summary References Chapter 2: Neurovascular Geography and Mapping the Consequences of Its Injury 2.1 Neurovascular Anatomy 2.2 Autoregulation 2.3 Diagnostic Studies 2.3.1 Brain Imaging 2.3.1.1 Computerized Tomography 2.3.1.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 2.3.1.3 Other Imaging Studies of Blood Flow and Metabolism 2.3.1.4 Cerebral Angiography 2.3.2 Duplex and Transcranial Doppler Ultrasonography References Chapter 3: Ischemic and Intracerebral Hemorrhagic Stroke 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Pathophysiology of Stroke Syndromes 3.2.1 Anterior Cerebral Artery Syndromes 3.2.1.1 Executive Dysfunctions 3.2.1.2 Alien Hand Syndromes 3.2.1.3 Theory of Mind Disturbances 3.2.1.4 Motor Neglect 3.2.2 Left Middle Cerebral Artery Syndromes 3.2.2.1 The Aphasias 3.2.2.2 Pure Alexia with Agraphia 3.2.2.3 Gerstmann and Angular Gyrus Syndromes 3.2.2.4 Ideomotor Apraxia 3.2.3 Right Middle Cerebral Artery Syndromes 3.2.3.1 Neglect and Anosognosia 3.2.3.2 Post Stroke Delirium 3.2.3.3 Constructional Impairment 3.2.3.4 Dressing Impairment 3.2.3.5 Spatial and Topographical Impairment 3.2.3.6 Motor Impersistence 3.2.3.7 Right Hemisphere Language and Communication Impairments 3.2.4 Unilateral Posterior Cerebral Artery Syndromes 3.2.4.1 Pure Alexia Without Agraphia 3.2.4.2 Memory Impairments 3.2.5 Bilateral Syndromes 3.2.5.1 Cortical Auditory Syndromes 3.2.5.2 Cortical Blindness and Related Disorders 3.2.5.3 Prosopagnosia 3.2.5.4 Bithalamic Syndromes 3.2.6 Cerebellar Syndromes 3.2.7 Brainstem Syndromes References Chapter 4: Cerebral Aneurysms and Subarachnoid Hemorrhage 4.1 Introduction/Background 4.2 Neuropathology/Pathophysiology 4.3 Diagnostic Criteria 4.3.1 Subarachnoid Hemorrhage 4.3.2 Unruptured Aneurysms 4.4 Characteristic Neurobehavioral Syndrome 4.5 Relatively Rare Neurobehavioral Syndromes Following Aneurysmal SAH 4.6 Unruptured Aneurysms 4.7 Supporting Laboratory Studies Following SAH 4.7.1 Treatment and Prognosis 4.8 Summary References Chapter 5: Neuropsychological Effects of Brain Arteriovenous Malformations 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Neuropathology and Pathophysiology 5.3 Demographics and Epidemiology 5.3.1 Natural History 5.3.2 Hemorrhage 5.3.3 Seizure 5.3.4 Headache 5.3.5 Neurological/Neuropsychological Deficits 5.3.6 Related Vascular Anomalies 5.3.7 Imaging Studies 5.3.7.1 Angiography 5.3.7.2 CT and MR 5.3.7.3 Disease Course 5.3.8 Treatment and Prognosis 5.3.8.1 Embolization 5.3.8.2 Neurosurgery 5.3.8.3 Radiosurgery 5.3.8.4 Superselective Wada Testing and Electrocortical Stimulation Mapping 5.3.8.5 AVM and Cerebral Reorganization 5.4 Conclusions References Chapter 6: Vascular Cognitive Impairment 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Brief History of VCI and VaD 6.3 Definition of Vascular Cognitive Impairment and Vascular Dementia 6.4 National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke-Association Internationale pour la Recherche et l’Enseignement en Neurosciences (NINDS-AIREN) Research Diagnostic Criteria 6.5 State of California Alzheimer’s Disease Diagnostic and Treatment Centers (ADDTC) Criteria for Ischemic Vascular Dementia (IVD) 6.6 Consensus Statement for Diagnosis of Subcortical Small Vessel Disease (SSVD) 6.7 American Heart Association/American Stroke Association (AHA/ASA) Diagnostic Criteria for VCI 6.8 International Society of Vascular Behavioral and Cognitive Disorders Criteria (ISVBCDC) 6.9 DSM-5 Criteria 6.10 Vascular Impairment of Cognitive Classification Consensus Study Criteria (VICCCS) 6.11 Epidemiology and Risk Factors 6.11.1 Descriptive Epidemiology 6.11.2 Risks for VCI 6.11.3 Clinical Manifestations 6.11.4 Diagnostic Studies 6.12 Prospects for Prevention and Treatment 6.12.1 Prevention 6.12.2 Multi-domain and Related Interventions 6.12.3 Treatment References Chapter 7: The Neurovascular Neuropsychology of Cerebral Autosomal Dominant Arteriopathy with Subcortical Infarcts and Leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL) and Mitochondrial Encephalomyopathy Lactic Acidosis and Stroke-Like Episodes (MELAS) 7.1 CADASIL 7.1.1 Definition, Genetics, and Pathological Aspects 7.1.2 Primary Clinical Features and Cognitive Symptoms 7.1.3 Cerebral Tissue Lesions and Cognitive Dysfunction in CADASIL 7.1.4 Treatment 7.2 MELAS References Chapter 8: Carotid Artery Disease 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Measuring the Extent of Narrowing in the Carotid Artery 8.2.1 Angiography 8.2.2 CTA and MRA 8.2.3 Duplex Ultrasound (DUS) 8.2.4 Transcranial Doppler (TCD) 8.3 Pathophysiologic Mechanisms for Cognitive Decline in Carotid Disease 8.4 Relationship Between Cerebral Hypoperfusion and Cognitive Function 8.5 Cognitive Changes After Carotid Artery Revascularization 8.5.1 Carotid Endarterectomy and Cognition 8.5.2 Carotid Artery Stenting 8.5.3 EC-IC Bypass 8.6 Conclusion References Chapter 9: Cardiac Arrest 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Epidemiology and Clinical Burden 9.3 Neuropathology 9.4 Acute Prediction of Survival and Quality of Recovery 9.4.1 Examination 9.4.2 Laboratory Studies 9.4.3 Electrophysiology 9.4.4 Neuroimaging 9.4.5 Summary 9.5 Course of Recovery 9.6 Residual Deficits 9.7 Treatment 9.7.1 Temperature Management 9.8 Quality of Life References Chapter 10: Cardiac Surgery and Cognition: Etiologies and Assessment Considerations 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Cognitive Dysfunction Following Cardiac Surgery 10.3 Pathophysiologic Processes and Perioperative Iatrogenic Factors 10.3.1 Neuroinflammation 10.3.2 Cerebral Embolic Injury 10.3.3 Cerebral Blood Flow and Autoregulation 10.3.4 Extracorporeal Circulatory Management 10.4 Assessment of Cognitive Change Following Cardiac Surgery 10.4.1 Psychometric Methods and Considerations 10.4.2 Cognitive Screen and Testing Battery Selection References Chapter 11: Cognitive Outcomes in Patients Undergoing Coronary Interventions and Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Coronary Interventions 11.3 Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement References Chapter 12: The Neuropsychology of Pulmonary Disease and Lung Transplantation Complications 12.1 Epidemiology of Pulmonary Disease 12.2 Types of Pulmonary Diseases 12.3 Cognitive Impairment in Pulmonary Disease 12.3.1 Other Pulmonary Conditions 12.4 Neuroimaging Correlates of Pulmonary Disease 12.5 Mechanisms of Cognitive Impairment in Pulmonary Disease 12.6 Lung Transplantation 12.7 Neurological Events Following Lung Transplantation 12.8 Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome 12.9 Delirium 12.10 Cognitive Changes Following Lung Transplantation 12.10.1 Neurocognitive Function and Clinical Events 12.11 Mechanisms of Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction 12.12 Summary References Chapter 13: Diabetes and Hypertension 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Neuropathology and Pathophysiology 13.2.1 Large Vessel Disease 13.2.2 Small Vessel Disease 13.2.3 Brain Atrophy and AD-Related Pathology 13.3 Intermediary Metabolic, Inflammatory and Oxidative Mechanism: Hypertension 13.3.1 Intermediary Physiologic Changes in Type 2 Diabetes 13.3.2 Hyperinsulinemia 13.3.3 Diabetes and Genetic Susceptibility 13.4 Characteristic Neurobehavioral Syndromes 13.4.1 Diabetes: Special Considerations 13.4.1.1 Type 1 Diabetes 13.4.1.2 Type 2 Diabetes 13.5 Plasma Glucose Dose Effects 13.6 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Neurovascular Consequences of Systemic Disease: Lupus and Primary Hyperparathyroidism 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Systemic Lupus Erythematous 14.2.1 Epidemiology 14.2.2 Pathogenesis 14.2.2.1 SLE Vasculopathy 14.2.2.2 Inflammatory Mediators, Cytokines, and Adhesion Molecules 14.2.2.3 Autoantibodies 14.2.2.4 Antiphospholipid Antibodies 14.2.2.5 Other NPSLE antibodies 14.2.2.6 Atherosclerosis 14.2.3 Neuropsychiatric Manifestations in SLE 14.2.4 Laboratory and Radiological Findings 14.2.5 Laboratory Testing 14.2.6 Neuroimaging 14.2.7 Neurofunctional Testing 14.2.8 Neuropsychological Testing 14.2.9 Treatment and Prognosis 14.2.9.1 Treatment of Non-thrombotic Severe NPSLE 14.2.9.2 Treatment of Thromboembolic Disease in NPSLE 14.2.9.3 Treatment of Cognitive Dysfunction in NPSLE 14.3 Primary Hyperparathyroidism 14.3.1 Pathogenesis and Epidemiology 14.3.2 Clinical Manifestations 14.3.3 Quality of Life (QOL) and Mood in PHPT 14.3.4 Cognitive Dysfunction in PHPT 14.3.5 Possible Mechanisms of Neuropathology and Neuropathophysiology 14.4 Summary and Future Directions References Chapter 15: Depression and Neurovascular Disease 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Vascular Depression 15.2.1 Clinical Expression of Vascular Depression 15.2.2 Pathophysiology 15.2.3 Assessment 15.2.4 Treatment 15.2.5 Non-pharmacologic Approaches 15.3 Post-stroke Depression 15.3.1 Clinical Expression and Functional Consequences of Post-stroke Depression 15.3.2 Pathophysiology 15.3.3 Assessment 15.3.4 Treatment 15.3.5 Non-pharmacologic Approaches 15.4 Summary References Chapter 16: Pediatric Neurovascular Conditions: Developmental and Neuropsychological Implications 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Congenital Heart Disease 16.2.1 Etiology and Risk Factors 16.2.2 Treatment and Rehabilitation 16.2.3 Neurological and Neuropsychological Outcome 16.3 Pediatric Stroke 16.3.1 Epidemiology and Pathophysiology 16.3.2 Etiology and Risk Factors 16.3.3 Treatment and Rehabilitation 16.3.4 Neurological Outcome 16.3.5 Neuropsychological Outcome 16.3.6 Intellectual Ability 16.3.7 Language 16.3.8 Visual-Spatial Ability 16.3.9 Learning, Memory, Attention, and Executive Function 16.3.10 Social-Emotional Functioning 16.4 Sickle Cell Disease 16.4.1 Epidemiology and Pathophysiology 16.4.2 Treatment and Rehabilitation 16.4.3 Neurological and Neuropsychological Outcome 16.5 Moyamoya Disease 16.5.1 Epidemiology and Pathophysiology 16.5.2 Etiology and Risk Factors 16.5.3 Treatment and Neurological Outcome 16.5.4 Neuropsychological Outcome 16.6 Developmental Considerations References Chapter 17: Functional Brain Imaging in Stroke Patients 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Measuring Blood Flow in the Human Brain 17.2.1 The Dilemma with Measuring Hemodynamic Response in Individuals with a Stroke Lesion 17.3 fMRI in Stroke Patients 17.4 Consequences of Disrupted Hemodynamic Response by Stroke 17.5 Future Directions References Chapter 18: Neuropsychological Rehabilitation 18.1 Introduction 18.1.1 Impact of Cognitive Deficits Post-Stroke 18.1.2 Framework for Rehabilitation 18.2 Focal Cognitive/Perceptual Deficit Syndromes 18.2.1 Attention 18.2.1.1 Pathophysiology and Mechanisms 18.2.1.2 Current Research Direct Remediation of Non-spatial Attention Compensatory Strategies for Non-spatial Attention Deficits 18.2.1.3 Clinical Applications and Future Directions 18.2.2 Spatial Neglect 18.2.2.1 Pathophysiology and Mechanisms 18.2.2.2 Current Research Direct Remediation of Spatial Neglect Compensatory Strategies for Spatial Neglect 18.2.2.3 Clinical Applications and Future Directions 18.2.3 Memory 18.2.3.1 Pathophysiology and Mechanisms 18.2.3.2 Current Research Direct Remediation of Memory Function Restitution and Compensatory Approaches for Improving Memory Function 18.2.3.3 Clinical Application and Future Research 18.2.4 Language and Communication Disorders 18.2.4.1 Pathophysiology and Mechanisms 18.2.4.2 Current Research Remediative Approaches Compensatory Approaches 18.2.4.3 Clinical Application and Future Research 18.2.5 Executive Function 18.2.5.1 Pathophysiology and Mechanisms 18.2.5.2 Current Research Computerized Drill-Based Exercises Direct Skill Training External Compensatory Strategies to Treat Executive Function Impairments 18.2.5.3 Clinical Application and Future Research 18.3 Conclusions References Chapter 19: Pharmacological Treatment of Post-stroke Cognitive Deficits 19.1 Introduction 19.1.1 Principles Underlying Recovery Promoted by Cognitive Rehabilitation and Drugs 19.1.2 Drug Treatment: The State-of-the-Art 19.1.3 Theoretical Justification for Using Drugs in Post-stroke Cognitive Disorders 19.1.4 Aphasia 19.1.5 Neglect 19.1.6 Vascular Cognitive Impairment 19.1.7 Refining and Expanding the Use of Efficacy Measures 19.1.8 Responder Analysis 19.1.9 Combined Therapies 19.1.10 Neural Network Modulation and Cognition-Enhancing Drugs References Chapter 20: Non-invasive Brain Stimulation in Human Stroke Survivors 20.1 State of the Field in Human Non-invasive Brain Stimulation 20.2 NIBS in Stroke 20.3 Biomarker 20.3.1 TMS as an Outcome Predictor 20.3.2 TMS as a Plasticity Probe 20.3.3 TMS to Test Drug Effects/Target Engagement 20.4 Understanding Stroke 20.4.1 TMS to Understand Pathophysiology 20.4.2 Virtual Lesion Experiments 20.4.3 Reorganization: Motor Mapping 20.5 Treatment 20.5.1 Treatment Considerations 20.5.2 TMS as Treatment 20.5.3 TES as Treatment 20.5.4 NIBS in Combination with Drugs 20.5.5 The Impact of Stroke on Brain Networks 20.5.6 Focality of a Single Cortical Target 20.5.7 Network Effects of NIBS 20.5.8 Multifocal Stimulation 20.5.9 Limitations and Future Directions of NIBS in Stroke Recovery References Index